history3

M.N. Dhalla: History of Zoroastrianism (1938), part 3.

[150] CHAPTER XVIII THE IDEA OF GOD IN THE MILLENNIUM	Notes:
Yahweh, the only God of the Hebrews. We have already seen the eclipse of the old gods and the rise of the new ones in India during the millennium that opened with Zarathushtra and ended with the advent of Jesue. The monotheistic idea greatly developed during this period among the Jews who were a subject race under the Persians and whose religion was influenced by Zoroastrianism. As Judaism later gave much to Christianity and Mohammedanism, the knowledge of the belief in the godhead among this people is of great interest, and we shall discuss it in brief. A race of sturdy nomads of Semitic stock tending their flocks from times immemorial in the Arabian desert, of handsome features with prominent aquiline nose, is seen settling down in Palestine about thirteen centuries before the Christian era. Many of their kinsmen had laboured and suffered as slaves in Egypt, until Moses brought them deliverance. The Hebrews, as the people are known to history, found their new settlement already populated by the civilized Canaanites. The new-comers intermarried with them and adopted their civilization. They succeeded later in founding a kingdom, and under the heroic ruler David, Jerusalem became the centre of Jewish religious life and the sanctuary of their national God Yahweh. During the period of the divided kingdoms of Judah and Israel prophetic literature of great value arose and enriched human thought. The kingdom of Israel ended in 721 B.C., and Judah met with her destruction in 586 B.C. The Persians brought the Jews deliverance and allowed them to restore the temple of Jerusalem that was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar. They flourished under the tolerant Persian rule, codified their religious laws, collected and copied the sermons and teachings and songs and ancient writings that they stilt possessed. Thus in a few centuries more there [151] came into being the scriptures known as the Old Testament, the most precious legacy of the Hebrews to mankind. When they had lived in small groups, each tribe had its God, whom the people worshipped. Gradually a more powerful God from among these won the universal respect of the race. He was Yahweh, worshipped in the earlier stages in the form of a brazen serpent, until the idol worship gave place to a purer form of godhead. His dominion over men was contested by Baal of Tyre who received devotion from the people side by side with him both in Israel and Judah. Yahweh ultimately came out successful and remained the only God of the Hebrews. The prophet Amos (760 B.C.) raised him to monotheistic grandeur and spoke as the mouth-piece of Yahweh. Hosea and Isaiah preach against idolatry and the prophets are incessantly enjoining upon the people not to make idols or graven images and they exhort them not to worship any other God but Yahweh. It is said that Yahweh is a jealous God and brooks no homage but to him. The children of Israel had suffered in Egypt where they were in bondage. God heard their groaning and had compassion on them. He appeared unto Moses in a flame of fire, burning in a bush, and said that he had come down to deliver the suffering children of Israel from bondage to a place flowing with milk and honey. He gave him ten commandments for the guidance of the people. Therein he demands that man shall fear him, walk in his ways, cleave unto him, obey him, love him, and serve him with all his heart and all his soul. He has chosen Israel unto himself above all people as a beacon of light and righteousness to mankind. Consequently, he demands that they shall serve him faithfully, and transgress not his commandments. If people walk in the Lord's statutes and keep his commandments, he gives them seasonal rains, full crops, protection against the attacks of animals and men, victory and offspring. He goes with the armies of Israel to the battlefield and fights for them against the enemies. But when they transgress his commandments, worship idols or other gods or turn apostates, he breaks the pride of their power, lets loose their enemies over them, and chastises them by visiting their country with plagues and pestlences, famines and droughts, desolation and death. It was for the inequities of his wayward children that Yahweh sent Tiglath-Pileser as his scourge to punish them and put them under [152] the Assyrian yoke. The prophet Isaiah tells the people that Yahweh uses Assyria as his rod to punish them. Those who seek Yahweh, find him. He does not fail or forsake them. But when they forsake him, and provoke him to anger, he casts them away forever. But even then if people repent, humble themselves before him, fall down on their faces, rend their clothes, and weep, he relents, forgives them, comes back to them, takes them under his protecting wings, helps them, and prospers them. The Psalms and Prophets are replete with higher ethical sentiment and aim at reforming the motives of conduct rather than regulating it by ceremonial observances. They are full of fervent expressions of religious emotion. God is depicted here as the compassionate Father who looks to all as his children. Judaism prepares the way for a nobler type of godhead that was to be preached by Jesus.
Taoism and Confucianism. Animism and ancestral worship ministered to the spiritual needs of the people in China from the earliest times. As in the other parts of the world, the higher conceptions of gods or of some one supreme principle like Heaven as God were gradually evolving among the sages. Tradition places the Golden Age of China in about 3000 B.C. But the authentic historical records do not go beyond a millennium before the Christian era. It is in this period that great religious and social ideals were preached that have shaped the Chinese life for all time. The country was harassed by feudal warfare, and famine and pestilence worked havoc, adding to the misery of the people. Perplexed at the visitation of misfortunes and calamities, wail goes up to Heaven from a poet in the eighth century B. C. complaining that Heaven is unjust and merciless in its dealings with mankind. Such complaints are however drowned in the chorus that Heaven does not will evil. It is man's own fault, in consequence of which he suffers. Man is born good, it is said, but when he goes astray from the path of goodness, he brings calamity on his head. When there were strife and chaos stalking the earth, the sages felt that peace and harmony reigned above in heaven. Perfect was the Way or Heaven or the Tao or the one universal principle, the ultimate reality. Happiness would fall to the lot of mankind, if it followed faithfully the Way. The imitation of the Way or Heaven was therefore the ideal of earthly conduct. It was virtue and virtue brought [153] happiness. Man's duty was to cultivate the Way and the sages undertook to teach it to mankind. The Way was one which to all thinkers looked alike, but the methods of reaching it as taught by them were different. Lao-tze, a great mystic born in 601 B.C., is the founder of Taoism. He teaches quietism. Confucius (551-479 B.C.) is the man of the world and teaches a moral code of personal conduct. His relgion is a discipline of life and his system is a reaction against Taoism.
[154] CHAPTER XIX AHURA MAZDA Ahura, Mazda, and Ahura Mazda. The name of God still retains its two elements separate. These have not yet coalesced into one word. In the metrical sections of the Younger Avesta the two elements are sometimes used apart from each other, or either one of the terms may be used to designate the Supreme Being, but in the prose compositions the collocation Ahura Mazda generally occurs as a compound phrase. In the formation of compounds, however, either Ahura or Mazda alone is used for the sake of convenience. The Ahura compounds such as Ahura-dhâta, 'created by Ahura,' Ahura-tkaesha, 'of the faith of Ahura,' or the adjectival form âhuiri, 'of Ahura,' invariably represent the divine lord Ahura Mazda. Similarly, the Mazda element in the compounds Mazda-dhâta, 'created by Mazda,' Mazda-yasna, 'worshipper of Mazda,' Mazdo-frasasta, 'taught by Mazda,' Mazdo-fraokhta, or Mazdaokhta, 'spoken by Mazda,' invariably stands for Ahura Mazda himself.
Ahura Mazda is the highest object of worship. Ahura Mazda still holds sovereign sway over both the worlds; his authority in the world of righteousness is undisputed, and his imperial right is unchallenged. He is the greatest and the very best of the angels.¹ The Old Persian Inscriptions speak of him as the greatest of the divinities.² The archangels and angels dutifully carry out Mazda's orders. Reverence for him has never abated, and adoration of him does not languish with the advent again of the old Indo-Iranian divinities. Like the dual divinities Varuna-Mitra who received joint invocation during the Indo-Iranian period, Ahura-Mithra or Mithra-Ahura are invoked together. Ahura generally takes precedence and Mithra stands second in the compound,³ but in the Nyaishes composed in [155] honour of Hvare Khshaeta or the sun and Mithra, as also in the Yasht dedicated to Mithra,⁴ the order is reversed and we have then Mithra-Ahura. He is yet the sublimest goal of human aspiration. The best of all sacrifices and invocations are those of Mazda.⁵	1. Y16.1; Yt17.16. 2. Dar. Pers. d. 1; Xerx. Elv. 1; Xerx. Van. 1. 3. Y1.11; 2.11; 3.13; 4.16; 6.10; 7.13; 17.10; 22.13. 4. Ny1.7; 2.7, 12; Yt10.113, 145. 5. TdFr.28.
The faithful acknowledge their indebtedness to Ahura Mazda and devoutly offer to him their homage and sacrifice.⁶ They worship him with the very life of the body,⁷ and they long to reach him through the medium of fire, through the Good Mind, through Righteousness, and through the deeds and words of wisdom, as well as through good thoughts, good words, and good deeds.⁸ Ahura Mazda, in fact, is implored to be their very life and limb in both the worlds.⁹ It is through the Best Righteousness that the true in heart aspire to behold the Lord to approach him, and to associate with him,¹⁰ The attainment of the companionship and the Kingdom of Ahura Mazda is the pious wish of the supplicant.¹¹	6. Y13.5. 7. Y37.3. 8. Y36.1, 4, 5. 9. Y41.3. 10. Y60.12. 11. Y40.2; 41.2, 5, 6.
Mazda's titles. The Yasna sacrifice opens with the praise of Ahura Mazda and enumerates the following divine titles: maker, radiant, glorious, the greatest, the best, the most beautiful, the most firm, the most wise, of the most perfect form, the highest in righteousness, possessed of great joy, creator, fashioner, nourisher, and the Most Holy Spirit.¹² He is all-pervading. There is no conceivable place where he is not. Closer than the nose is to the ears, or the ears are to the mouth, is he to all that which the corporeal world thinks, speaks, and does.¹³ He is the greatest temporal and spiritual lord.¹⁴ He is the absolute ruler.¹⁵ He is the most mighty and righteous.¹⁶ He is benevolent.¹⁷ He is the maker, the most holy, the most wise, and the best one to answer when questioned.¹⁸ His is the omnisscent wisdom.¹⁹ He is undeceivable.²⁰ He is omniscient and never sleeping.²¹ Radiant and glorious are the most frequent epithets with which the texts open the invocation to the divinity. [156] Above all Ahura Mazda is the spirit of spirits.²² This essential trait stands intact through all changes in the concept of God. He is not invested with any anthropomorphic chracter, and his multifarious epithets are truly the figurative expressions of human language used by man in his feeble attempt to give vent to an outburst of the feelings of devotion and reverence for his Heavenly Father. Ahura Mazda is synonymous with light, even as his opponent is identical with darkness, and the sun is spoken of as his most beautiful form.²³ Just as the Rig Veda speaks of the sun as the eye of Mithra and Varuna,²⁴ so do the Avestan texts call the sun the eye of Ahura Mazda.²⁵ Speaking about the nature of Ahuta Mazda, Plutarch well remarks that among objects of sense the Zoroastrian godhead most of all resembles the light.²⁶ The star-spangled heaven is his garment;²⁷ the holy spell is his soul.²⁸ Many are the names by which mankind have learnt to know him. The first Yasht, which is dedicated to him, enumerates seventy-four of these attributes. They are all descriptive of his wisdom, far-sightedness, power, righteousness justice, and mercy.²⁹	12. Y1.1. 13. TdFr. 58, 59. 14. Y27.1; Vr11.21. l5. Y21.3. 16. Y56.1. 17. Y38.4. 18. Vd18.7, 13, 66. 19. Vr19.1. 20. Yt12.1. 21. Yt12.1; Vd. 19.20, 26. 22. Y4.7. 23. Y36.6; 28.8. 24. RV. 1.115.1; 6.51.1; 7.61.1; 63.1; 10.37. 25. Y1.11; 3.13; 4.16; 7.13; 22.13. 26. Is. et Os. 46. 27. Yt13.3. 28. Yt13.81. 29. Yt1.7, 8, 12-15.
Only the world of righteousness is created by Ahura Mazda. As the antithesis between the Deity and the Evil Spirit is now most strongly marked in the Later Avesta, the godhead is expressly described as the creator of everything that is good,³⁰ evil being the counter-creation of Angara Mainyu. Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu in the younger texts are described as creating good and evil in turn. The archangels are Mazda's creations;³¹ so also are the angels and men, the animals, sky, water, trees, light, wind, and earth.³² In the various enquiries which Zarathushtra addresses to Ahura Mazda in the Vendidad, the divinity is portrayed as the creator of corporeal world. Ahura expressly says to Zarathushtra that he has created everything in [157] the world, and yet nothing in his creation comes up to the level of man, who is the greatest and the best of all creations.³³ Through the wisdom of Ahura Mazda the world has come into being, and through his divine wisdom it will come also to an end.³⁴	30. Y71.10; Vr11.5; Vd11.1. 31. Yt1.25. 32. Y1.1, 2, 12; 2.12; 12.7; 17.12; 37.1; 38.3; Vr7.4; Vd19.13, 16, 35; 21.4, 8, 12; Aog. 30. 33. Aog. 30. 34. Yt1.26.
[158] CHAPTER XX SPENTA MAINYU Belief in an intermediary spirit between God and the world. From the days of Thales (about 600 B.C.), the head of the school of Miletus, the Greek thinkers were in touch with the Orient. The Ionians were in close contact with the Persians. Pythagoras, we have seen, was believed by the classical writers to have been the pupil of Zoroaster, though several centuries intervened between them. Numenius of Apamea says that Pythagoras and Plato reproduce the ancient wisdom of the Magi and Brahmans, Egyptians and Jews. Alexandria became later a cosmopolitan seat of learning, and the intellectual East and West met there. It was here that Judaism and afterwards Christianity were Hellenized. The wisdom of the East was held in high esteem at Alexandria. Persian influence, it seems, had been felt in Greece in the early formative period of its philosophy. Zarathushtra, we have noticed, postulated a quasi-independent spirit intermediary between the godhead and the universe, Anaxagoras calls it nous, acting between God, and the world as the regulating principle of existence. Plato says in his Timaeus that the universe becomes an organism through the universal World-Soul that is created by the Demiurge, the Supreme Deity.
The Old Testament refers to the Spirit of Yahweh.¹ Philo Judaeus unites the Greek and Jewish ideas about Logos and says that Logos is the first-born Son of God and acts as a viceregent of God between God and the world. He is the prototypal Man after whose image all men are created. Logos is something more than Plato's Idea of the Good, because, like Spenta Mainyu, he is creatively active. In common with Spenta Mainyu, Logos is not a personal being, and like Spenta Mainyu again, he appears sometimes as identified with God and at other times seems to be an attribute of God. The Avestan texts refer to Spenta Mainyu and his adversary Angra Mainyu as thworeshtar or the fashioners [159] or cutters and, speaking about the work of Logos, Philo speaks of him as Tomeus, 'the cutter,' employing the word of the same meaning. Again as Spenta Mainyu or the spirit of light is shadowed by the opposite spirit of darkness, so Logos, says Philo, is the Shekinah or Glory or Light of God, but he is also the darkness or shadow of God. This is so because, he adds, the creature reveals only half the creator and hides the other half. In the Book of Wisdom of Solomon, Wisdom, identical with the Greek Logos, is the divine essence, living a quasi-independent existence in God and side by side with God. She works as the active agent of god in the creation of the world. In Mithraism, Mithra held the position of the Mediator between God who was unknowable and unapproachable and mankind. He fashioned the world as Demiurge. The intermediary Spirit of God occurs throughout the New Testament. Numenius of Apamea, writing in the second century, says that God has bestowed divine qualities upon a second god who acts in the world as the power for good. The Supreme God or the First principle, he adds, works in the spiritual world, whereas the activity of the second god extends to the spiritual as well as material world. Origen, writing shortly after him, says that God created Logos or the Son. His relation to the Father is the same as that which exists between Ahura Mazda and Spenta Mainyu. The Son or Logos, says Origen, is co-eternal and co-equal with the Father, but the Son is lesser than the Father. Clement of Alexandria says that Logos, represents the will, power, and energy of God. He is the creator on behalf of God. He has introduced harmony in the universe and conducts its affairs as the pilot.	1. Genesis 1.2.
The relation between Ahura Mazda and his Holy Spirit. It remains as subtle in the Younger Avestan texts as it was in the Gathas. We have already seen in the treatment of this highly abstract concept, as it is portrayed in the Gathic texts, that the term Spenta Mainyu either designated Ahura Mazda as his divine attribute, or occurred as a being separate from the godhead. The Later Avestan texts, it seems to us, lead us to the idea that Spenta Mainyu has no independent existence apart from Ahura Mazda, in other words, as shown above, he is not a personal being. The Later Avesta, moreover, as we shall see in the subsequent pages, teaches that all earthly and heavenly [160] beings, belonging to the Kingdom of Goodness, including Ahura Mazda himself, have their Fravashis, or Guardian Spirits. Spenta Mainyu alone in the realm of the good is without his Guardian Spirit. Furthermore, Spenta Mainyu does not receive homage and invocation from man, as do Ahura Mazda, the Amesha Spentas, and the Yazatas. In one passage the faithful dedicate their thoughts, words, deeds, and all to him.² Spenta Mainyu, therefore, may be taken as an attribute of Ahura Mazda which is either conjointly used with the godhead as his distinguishing epithet, or occurs alone by itself to designate the Supreme Being. In this latter use, it may be said, Spenta Mainyu represents Ahura Mazda, in the same manner as the royal title 'His Majesty' is frequently used as a substitute for the name of a king.	2. Y58.6.
In contradistinction to the evil creation of Angra Mainyu, or the Evil Spirit, the Avestan texts speak of the good creation as belonging to Spenta Mainyu, the Holy Spirit.³ He maintains the sky, the waters, the earth, the plants, and the children to be born.⁴ The stars also are spoken of as the creatures of the Holy Spirit.⁵ He created Mithra's chariot, inlaid with stars and made of heavenly substance.⁶ He is spoken of as the holier of the two spirits.⁷ He struggles with Angra Mainyu to seize the Kingly Glory [khwarrah].⁸ Characteristic or the highly developed type of dualism of the Younger Avestan period, we find that the two rival spirits divide their sphere of influence in regard to the wind, or Vayu. The moderate wind that is conducive of good is called the wind of Spenta Mainyu,⁹ and only to this good part of Vayu are the faithful to offer sacrifice.¹⁰ Snavidhka, a tyrant foe of the Iranian hero Keresaspa, haughtily exclaims that if he ever grew to manhood he would make the heavens his chariot, convert the earth into a wheel, bring down Spenta Mainyu, or the Holy Spirit, from the shining paradise, and make Angra Mainyu, or the Evil Spirit, rush up from the dreary hell, and [161] compel them to draw his chariot.¹¹ In a couple of instances Ahura Mazda is depicted as speaking of the Holy Spirit as a part of himself. Speaking about the great work of the Fravashis, or the Guardian Spirits, Ahura Mazda says that had not the Ftavashis helped him, the wicked Druj would have smitten the good creation, and it would never have been possible for Spenta Mainyu to deal a blow to Angra Mainyu.¹² Ahura Mazda sacrifices unto Vayu and asks from this angel of wind a boon, that he may smite the creation of Angra Mainyu but that none may smite the cteation of Spenta Mainyu.¹³	3. Y1.16; 8.6, 11.13; 17.2; 57.17; Vr12.4; Yt6.2; 8.48; 11.11; 13.76; 15.3, 43, 44; Vd3.20; 5.33; 13.1, 2, 5, 6, 16. 4. Yt13.28, 29. 5. Y1.11; 3.13; 4.16; 7.13; 22.13; Yt12.32. 6. Yt10.143. 7. Y19.9. 8. Yt19.46. 9. Y22.24; 25.5. 10. Yt15.5, 42, 57, 58; S1.21; 2.11. 11. Yt19.43, 44. 12. Yt13.12, 13. 13. Yt15.2, 3.
The superlative forms, Spentotema Mainyu,¹⁴ or Spenishta Mainyu, meaning the Most Holy Spirit; are spoken of as Ahura Mazda's attributes.¹⁵	14. Y1.1; 37.3. 15. Y19.1; Yt1.1; 14.1, 34, 42; Vd2.1; 7.1; 9.1; 10.1; 14.1; 18.14; A4.4.
[162] CHAPTER XXI AMESHA SPENTAS The archangels. The higher celestial beings that had not expressly acquired a distinguishing name of their own in the Gathas are now designated as the Amesha Spentas, or 'Holy Immortal Ones.' They are thus addressed for the first time in the Haptanghaiti, or the Yasna of Seven Chapters, the earliest prose composition of the Avestan period, though still made in the Gathic dialect.¹ They are all created by Ahura Mazda.² Plutarch and Strabo refer to them in their works.³ With the godhead at the pinnacle they form a heptad and are henceforth mentioned as the seven Holy Immortal Ones.⁴ Severally they are both male and female.⁵ Vohu Manah, Asha Vahishta, and Khshathra Vairya are conceived of as masculine beings, though neuter in grammatical gender; Spenta Armaiti is pictured as a feminine concept; and Haurvatat and Ameretat are treated as masculine beings, though their grammatical gender is feminine. In a paramount degree they are all of one thought, one word, and one deed; their father and lord is the creator Ahura Mazda.⁶ They look into one another's soul;⁷ and they each have their special Fravashi.⁸ Garonmana [garothman], the highest heaven, is their dwelling-place, and there they occupy the golden seats that belong to spirits in the realm supernal.⁹ Their sacred names are the most mighty, most glorious, and the most victorious of the spells.¹⁰ To utter their name is synonymous with efficacy and power. Yasht 2 is devoted to their praise.	1. Y39.3; 42.6. 2. Yt1.25. 3. Is. et Os. 47; Strabo, p. 732; Thomas, Strabo and the Ameshaspands in J. J. Madressa Jubilee Volume, p. 173-176. 4. Yt2.13; 13.83; 19.16; For seven Babylonian Igigis and seven Elamite deities, see Gray, The Foundations of the Iranian Religions, p. 17. 5. Y4.4; 24.9; 39.3; Vr9.4. 6. Yt13.83; 19.16. 7. Yt13.84; 19.17. 8. Y23.2. 9. Vd19.32, 36. 10. Yt1.3.
[163] Their attributes. The Amesha Spentas are the ever-living and the ever-helping ones;¹¹ they are the wise ones, and good rulers.¹² It is they that are the shining ones; of efficacious eyes, exalted, mighty, valiant, imperishable, and righteous.^l2 They are the makers, rulers, fashioners, guardians, protectors, and preservers of the creation of Mazda,¹⁴ and Mazda has given them beautiful forms.¹⁵	11. Y4.4; 39.3; Vr9.4; 11.12. 12. Y2.2; 4.4; 6.1; 24.9; 25.4; 35.1; 58.5; 70.1; Vr8.1; 11.12; Vd19.9. 13. Y26.3; Yt13.82. 14. Y58.5; Yt19.18; Vd19.9. 15. Yt13.81.
Their work. The archangels hold their celestial councils on the heights of the heavens.¹⁶ From there they come down to the seven zones into which the world was divided according to the Avesta,¹⁷ and rule over the realms of earth.¹⁸ They are naturally invited to the sacrifice,¹⁹ and offerings are placed by the devout for them to accept.²⁰ The faithful pray that the Amesha Spentas may visit and enjoy sacrifices in their houses,²¹ for shining is the path by which they descend to earth to receive the libations offered in their honour.²² Even Mithra as a God-like embodiment sacrificed unto them,²³ and for him they have made a dwelling.²⁴ They are of one accord with the sun;²⁵ and they gather together the light of the moon and pour it down upon the earth.²⁶ They are the divine ones who help in bringing about the final restoration of the world.²⁷ Each of them will smite his opponent at the time of the resurrection.²⁸	16. G2.8. 17. Y57.23; Yt11.14. 18. Vd19.13. 19. Y1.2. 20. Y4.2. 21. Y60.6. 22. Yt13.84; 19.17. 23. Yt10.89. 24. Yt10.51. 25. Yt10.5l; l3.92. 26. Yt7.3. 27. Yt19.19. 28. Yt19.96.
Zarathushtra the first among mortals to sacrifice unto the Amesha Spentas. Mazda asks his prophet to invoke the Amesha Spentas, even though he could not behold them with his eyes.²⁹ Zarathushtra follows Mazda's behests; and he is the first man to invoke them.³⁰ a spiritual predecessor having been Sraosha. For that reason the faithful sacrifice unto the Amesha Spentas with love and joy,³¹ and pray to them for help and protection.³² Their praise and sacrifice form one of the cardinal articles of [164] faith.³³ Hence it is that we find in the oft-repeated formulas of the Later Avestan texts that sacrifice, invocation, propitiation, and glorification are offered to them for the furtherance of prosperity in the world of righteousness.³⁴ Nor must it be forgotten that in his benedictions upon King Vishtaspa the prophet invokes upon his royal patron the blessings of brightness, glory, riches, swift horses, and good sons that come as a benign gift from the archangels.³⁵ The ceremonials performed in honour of the Amesha Spentas by unholy priests delight them not;³⁸ on the other hand, distress and harm flee from that worshipper whose homage has reached them.³⁷ When their loving votary performs his devotions and finds his spirit inflamed by their love, he forthwith dedicates to them the very life of his body and all his earthly possessions.³⁸	29. Vd19.13. 30. Yt17.18. 31. Y15.1; Vr6.1. 32. Y58.5. 33. Y12.1. 34. Y52.4. 35. Yt24.46. 36. Yt10.139; 24.12. 37. Yt1.24. 38. Y11.18; 14.1, 2; Vr5.2.
VOHU MANAH
His place in the Later Avesta. As the first in the creation of Ahura Mazda, Vohu Manah retains his pre-eminent position in the Later Avestan period. He occupies his seat next to Ahura Mazda in the celestial council. The other archangels live in him.³⁹ In some cases Vohu Manah does not stand as the name of the archangel, but simply connotes its ordinary meaning good mind or thought. In fact, as in the Gathas, there is a subtlety of meaning that makes it difficult to decide in translation whether the concept or the archangel is intended. In Vd19.20, 23-25 the term designates a good man or even clean clothes.	39. Y4.4; Vr11.12.
Vohu Manah guards wisdom. Vohu Manah's khratu, or wisdom, which occurs in the Gathas, is now classified in the later texts into two distinct types, âsna khratu, 'innate wisdom,' and gaoshosruta khratu, 'acquired wisdom.' These two types of knowledge are spoken of as objects worthy of sacrifice and propitiation.⁴⁰ Ahura Mazda accordingly asks Zarathushtra to seek knowledge all the night long,⁴¹ because the true priest and [165] his disciples work by day and by night for the increase of knowledge.⁴² Vohu Manah rejoices in man's endeavour to wrest from nature her secrets.	40. Y22.25; 25.6; Yt2.1; S1.2, 29; 2.2, 29. 41. Yt24.41. 42. Vd4.45; 18.6.
His Work. When the Evil Spirit first attacked creation Vohu Manah came to its succour.⁴³ Zarathushtra asks Ahura Mazda to teach him the laws of both the worlds, so that men following his precepts may act in such a way that Vohu Manah may come to them.⁴⁴ It is through his medium that the devout can aspire to reach Ahura Mazda;⁴⁵ and on that account he is implored to further bodily life.⁴⁶ It is said, moreover, that he is more a possession of the hard-working man of the world, who has married and toils for his family, than of the celibate or the ascetic.⁴⁷ Vohu Manah's function of guarding the animal kingdom is not emphasized in the Avestan texts.	43. Yt13.77, 78. 44. Yt1.20. 45. Yt36.4. 46. Y68.23. 47. Vd4.48.
Vohu Manah welcomes the righteous souls to paradise. When the blessed ones cross the great bridge and come up to the gates of heaven, this premier angel rises from his golden throne and in gracious words receives the new-comers.⁴⁸	48. Vd19.31.
In the final conflict between the hosts of the rival powers, he will smite his adversary Aka Manah.^48a	48a. Yt19.96.
ASHA VAHISHTA
The formation of the name. The Younger Avesta, in conformity with the Gathas, calls this archangel Asha and adds the epithet vahishta or 'best' to the name. The variant stem arta is, however, found as an element of Astvatereta, the name of the renovator [soshyant].⁴⁹ It is also met with in the proper names during the Achaemenian period. We have, for example, Artakhshathra, Artadata, Artapata, and Artafarnah. Its forms areta, 'proper,' and anareta or anaretha, 'improper,' are likewise found.⁵⁰ A righteous person is called ashavan which is equivalent to the [166] Vedic rtâvan. In the use of Avestan ashahe khâ and Vedic khâ rtasya, 'source of righteousness,' we have an interesting instance of the common words employed by both.⁵¹	49. Yt13.110, 117, 128, 129; 19.92, 95. 50. Y12.4; 65.9; Vr1.2; 2.2. 51. Y10.4; RV2.28.5.
His righteousness remains the basic doctrine of Zoroastrianism during the Later Avestan period. Ahura Mazda is the righteous lord of righteousness.⁵² Among the many names by which Ahura Mazda is invoked in the hymn dedicated to him, the fourth is Asha Vahishta or Best Righteousness.⁵³ Ahura Mazda has created Asha Vahishta, or Best Righteousness,⁵⁴ who is the greatest, best, fairest, the radiant, the all-good archangel.⁵⁵ In one instance he is called by the Indo-Iranian epithet bagha, 'divinity.' He it is who smites disease, death, fiends, sorcerers, noxious creatures, and his adversary Druj, Deceit or Wickedness.⁵⁶ Zarathushtra for that reason proclaims the glory of Asha Vahishta, through whom the way to the abode of the archangels, paradise, becomes easy.⁵⁷ The souls of the dead, who are the Fravashis of the righteous, dwell in the shining realm of Asha Vahishta.⁵⁸ This celestial personification gives joy to the souls of the righteous dead.⁵⁹ It is through him that the devotee aspires to behold and reach Ahura Mazda.⁶⁰ He offers homage and adoration to him along with Ahura Mazda.⁶¹ Emphasizing Zarathushtra's dictum in the Gathas, the Younger Avesta affirms that there is one path alone that leads to the eternal life, and that is the Path of Righteousness.⁶² The Vedas likewise allude to the Path of Rta.⁶³ The Achaemenian kings refer to the Right Path in their rock inscriptions.⁶⁴ Buddha embodies his teachings in his noble Eightfold Path.⁶⁵ During the same period Lao-tze interprets his philosophy in the Tao or the Way in China. Shinto or the Way of the gods appears in the national cult of Japan. The prophets and seers reveal the Path or Way of life to mankind and Jesus calls himself the Way, a thousand years after Zarathushtra. The faithful invoke the holy waters of Ahura Mazda for the attainment of this path which is the most upright and which leads to the paradise of [167] the righteous.⁶⁶ Atar, the genius of fire, leads to this straightest path all those who lie not unto Mithra.⁶⁷ Referring to the guilty persons who have undergone punishments for the crime of assaulting other persons, the Vendidad⁶⁸ admonishes sinners to walk in the path of righteousness in future. Darius likewise exhorts men not to leave the path which is right.⁶⁹	52. G5.5. 53. Yt1.7. 54. Yt1.25. 55. Y13.8; 37.4; 59.32; 60.13; Yt1.22; 2.7; 13.91, 92; S1.3; 2.3. 56. Yt3.14-17. 57. Yt3.3. 58. Y16.7. 59. TdFr. 72-74. 60. Y60.12. 61. Y41.1. 62. Y72.11 63. RV1.136. 64. Naksh-i Rustam a. 6. 65. Mahâvagga, 1.6.18. 66. Y68.13. 67. Yt10.3. 68. NR. a. 6.
Zarathushtra was the first among mortais to praise this embodiment of holiness;⁷⁰ and King Vishtaspa, by adopting the new faith, helped to open the way for righteousness in this world.⁷¹ The faithful beseech Ahura Mazda to bless them with intelligent men who embrace righteousness;⁷² Good, thoughts of the mind, good words of the tongue, and good deeds of the hand make man ashavan, or righteous.⁷³ He obtains purity when he cleanses his own self with them.⁷⁴ The friendship of Asha in this world and the next is the most coveted boon for all time.⁷⁵ It is easy to understand why Asha is invoked to enter the house of the faithful to smite the wicked Druj.⁷⁶ The excellence of religious thoughts, words, and deeds, which is ordained by Ahura Mazda, and nourished by Vohu Manah, is furnished by the righteousness of Asha Vahishta.⁷⁷	70. Yt13.88. 71. Yt13.99; 19.93. 72. Y40.3. 73. TdFr. 57-59; see Nariman, Buddhist parallels to Humata, Hukhta, Hvarashta in Dastur Hoshang Memorial Volume, p. 311-316. 74 Vd10.19. 75. Y40.2; 41.6. 76. Y60.5. 77. Vr12.3, 4.
Righteousness is the highest riches. Man, we are told, pines for the riches of the earth and often strives to obtain the boon of wealth even by unlawful means. On the contrary, he should rather aspire to a store of righteousness, which is the real and permanent wealth. When a man starts on a journey, he takes provisions and stores with him.⁷⁸ He takes care to provide himself with more goods than are his actual requirements.⁷⁹ How sad it is, then, that he should not furnish himself now, while it is time, with the spiritual stores of righteousness for the great journey which he will have one day to undertake and from which he will never return.⁸⁰ In the end cattle are dust; gold and silver are dross; even the body of man mingles with clay. Righteousness alone does not mingle with the dust, but survives the bodily death of man.⁸¹ There comes a day or there comes a [168] night, when the master leaves his cattle, when the cattle leave their master, and the soul leaves the body.⁸² But righteousness, which is the greatest and the best of all riches, accompanies the soul after death.⁸³ Riches and fortune one cannot have for oneself, nor can one maintain form and beauty of body forever at will; but everyone can embrace righteousness and make it his own in this world.⁸⁴ The best man is the righteous man. He is not heroic who is not heroic in righteousness, he is not valiant who is not valiant in righteousness.⁸⁵ Life in departing leaves the richest empty in the midst of his abundance, if he lacks righteousness.	78. Aog. 41. 79. Aog. 42-44. 80. Aog. 46-47. 81. Aog. 84. 82. Aog. 51. 83. Aog. 52. 84. TdFr. 95-98. 85. TdFr. 103, 104.
The world of righteousness, as against the world of wickedness. The universe is divided into two hostile camps. The righteous form a distinct world by themselves, and they are the favourite ones of Ahura Mazda. The men who have chosen to naturalize themselves as citizens of the Kingdom of Wickedness form a separate world of their own. The texts in the Later Avesta speak of the ashaono sti, 'the world of the righteous man,' as opposed to the drvato sti, 'the world of the wicked fiend,' The sorcerers and the wicked destroy the world of righteousness.⁸⁶ It is the faithful that work for the furtherance of the one, and for the destruction of the other.⁸⁷ The man that is holy rejoices in the prosperity of the former, just as he exults in the adversity of the latter.⁸⁸ He who does not gladden a righteous person who comes within his gates has no lasting or true joy. To be charitable to such a one is to attain paradise.⁸⁹ But again, he rejoices not who helps a wicked person that clamours for help. To help such an evil one is equivalent to hindering righteousness, inasmuch as he is wicked who is a source of goodness to the wicked.⁹⁰ A gift bestowed upon a righteous man is the best of all libations,⁹¹ but not so when it is made to a wicked one. Refusing food to a demon-worshipper or a wicked one does not make one guilty.⁹² The faithful pray that a righteous king may rule over them, but that a wicked one may be baffled and defeated.⁹³	86. Y8.3. 87. Y52.4. 88. Y8.8. 89. TdFr. 107-109. 90. Y71.13; TdFr. 110-112. 91. N84. 92. N18. 93. Y8.6.
[169] Bodily purity contributes to righteousness. Next to life the second best good for man is purity.⁹⁴ This is the dictum of the Gathas, and it is most consistently developed throughout the entire subsequent literature. It is the favourite theme on which, the Zoroastrian theologians are never tired of expatiating. Purity of body is the most salient feature in the life of a Zoroastrian. It is rated higher than anything else. The problem of cleanness and uncleanness, purity and impurity, has evoked an extensive literature. The tenets of the faith in this respect have been worked out into a science of health. Bodily purity is indispensable to purity of mind. Cleanliness of body is an essential requisite for saintliness. The clean in body find it easy to be pure in mind, and the pure in heart have just a step to take to be holy in spirit.
Asha Vahishta comes to be regarded as the healing spirit of bodily diseases. As the many kinds of healers restore bodily health by herbs and drugs, and remove the tumours and cancers by knife and implements, so there are healers that heal through righteousness or by the holy spell. We shall speak later on, in its proper place, of the art of healing by means of the holy spell. The Yasht which receives its name after Asha Vahishta is in fact mostly consecrated to Asha Vahishta's associate Airyaman, the guardian genius of human health. Of all the healers, the Avestan texts announce, the spiritual healer is the best one; it is he that heals the faithful through his own righteousness by means of the utterance of the holy spell.⁹⁵	95. Yt3.6; Vd7.44.
Asha Vahishta's relation to fire. We have seen in the Gathas Asha's dual association with the universal order prevailing everywhere and fire. We find these early Zoroastrian conceptions reflected in the writings of the Greek philosophers of the period. Heraclitus, who flourished at Ephesus, near the end of the sixth century B.C., postulates fire as the first principle from which everything that exists has come. It is working as reason or Logos and reveals the stable, divine law in the eternal flow of things in the universe. Heraclitus left a deep impression on Greek philosophy and his conceptions appear in later thinkers.⁹⁶	96. See also Carnoy, Zoroastrianism in ERE 12. 866.
In the Avestan liturgy Asha Vahishta is invoked together [170] with Atar; the genius of fire.⁹⁷ Angra Mainyu, as the devil, exclaims that Zarathushtra burns him with Asha Vahishta as with molten metal.⁹⁸ This allegory of burning and annihilating the Evil Spirit through righteousness is taken literally in the later period of Zoroastrianism, Where Asha Vahishta is identified at times with the household fire on the hearth. Such identification in the realms of matter and of spirit serves only to bring more into prominence the main tenets of Zoroaster's teachings in regard to Asha.	97. Yl.4; 2.4; 3.6; 4.9; 6.3; 7.6, 17.3; 22.6; 59.3; Yt4.9; Sr1.7; 2.7; Afr. 4.2; G.2, 9, 12. 98. Yt17.20.
KHSHATHRA VAIRYA
The change that the concept undergoes. The Gathic Khshathra now takes Vairya, 'desirable,' as its standing epithet, and hence both the terms combine to form the name of this archangel. This archangel of Ahura Mazda⁹⁹ gradually loses the abstract side of his nature in the Avestan texts. In the Gathic prose text of the Yasna Haptanghaiti the abstract idea of the Divine Kingdom occurs but once. In this solitary passage the devout long for the everlasting Kingdom of Ahura Mazda.¹⁰⁰ Throughout the Younger Avestan texts this abstract idea of the spiritual kingdom recedes into the background, or rather is entirely lost sight of. True, Khshathra Vairya is still occasionally invoked by name along with the other celestial beings, but his higher function as the genius of the sovereign power in the abstract entirely falls out.	99. Yt1.25. 100. Y41.2.
Khshathra Vairya as the genius of earthly wealth. Materially Khshathra Vairya is the genius of metal, and his activity is now limited to guarding this concrete creation of God. He is not spoken of as the genius of the celestial riches of the Divine Kingdom of Ahura Mazda. Khshathra Vairya and the molten metal are invoked side by side.¹⁰¹ In fact he very soon loses even this trait of his work; he is identified with metal and just becomes metal itself.¹⁰² Thrita, the first reputed healer [171] of the bodies of mortals, received from him a surgical instrument for healing.¹⁰³	101. Vr20.1; Yt2.7; Sr1.4; 2.4. 102. Yt10.125; Vd9.10; 16.6; 17.6, 8. 103. Vd20.3.
As the genius of metal, Khshathra Vairya is the lord of earthly riches. He generously bestows his possessions on the poor. He is sometimes invoked in company of marezhdika, 'mercy,'¹⁰⁴ who is styled the protector of the poor. We can trace this relation of Khshathra Vairya as the merciful helper of the poor to the Ahuna Vairya [Ahunwar] formula.	104. Yt2.7; Sr1.4; 2.4.
SPENTA ARMAlTI
Her position in the Avesta. As devotion personified on the abstract side, and as the genius of the earth on the concrete side, Spenta Armaiti, 'Holy Devotion,' retains her dual nature in the Younger Avesta. Through the medium of Devotion the faithful aspire to approach Ahura Mazda,¹⁰⁵ and in the Confession of Faith the pious follower of Zarathushtra chooses Devotion, and yearns to make her his own.¹⁰⁶ Upon lifting up his devotional prayer the house-lord prays that she may enter his house and thus rout heresy.¹⁰⁷ The malice and harm of the wicked could be averted through her help.^l08 She is the daughter of Ahura Mazda and as the genius of devotion is the mother of Ashi Vanghulti, or the genius of Good Piety,¹⁰⁹ while Rata, the guardian spirit of generosity, is invoked with her.¹¹⁰	105. Y13.6; 39, 5. 106. Y12.2. 107. Y60.5. 108. Yt1.28. 109. Yt17.16; Vd19.13, 16. 110. Sr1.5; 2.5.
Armaiti as earth. From her position as the female genius of the earth,¹¹¹ Armaiti very soon becomes the earth herself. She is now more frequently spoken of as the earth than as the genius of the earth.¹¹² She wears the star-studded sky as her garment.¹¹³	111. Vd3.35. 112. Y16.10; Yt24.50; Vd2.10, 14, 18; 18.51, 64.
HAURVATAT AND AMERETAT
The dual archangels. These two Amesha Spentas are closely united to each other and generally occur together side by side.¹¹⁴ Haurvatat has a Yasht consecrated to him, being invoked as the [172] lord of seasons and years.¹¹⁵ Ahura Mazda created Haurvatat for the help, joy, comfort, and pleasure of the righteous ones.¹¹⁶ The man who invokes the name of Haurvatat as one of the archangels is able to smite the legion of demons.¹¹⁷ The two, Haurvatat and Ameretat, together form the reward of the righteous after death,¹¹⁸ while fire is invoked to grant the blessings of Haurvatat and Ameretat to its supplicants for help and joy.¹¹⁹ The two archangels together will smite the demons of hunger and thirst during the final conflict between the forces of good and evil.¹²⁰	113. Yt13.3. 114. Y1.2; 3.1; 4.1; 6.17; 7.26; 8.1; 58.7; 70.2; 11.12; Vr9.5; Yt1.15; 10.92. 115. Yt4.0; S1.6; 2.6. 116. Yt4.1. 117. Yt4.2. 118. Yt1.25. 119. Y58.7. 120. Yt19.96.
Instances where the two archangels materially personify water and plants are not found in the Later Avestan texts. Examples, however, are not wanting, as is well known, in which they occur as meaning specifically water and plants in their healing effect on mankind.¹²¹	121. Y3.1; 4.1, 3; 7.1, 20; 8.1.
[173] CHAPTER XXII YAZATAS
The Zoroastrian angels. Next in rank to the Amesha Spentas come the Yazatas, literally meaning the 'adorable ones.' We find the corresponding Skt. word Yajata in the Rig Veda, but it does not play any conspicuous part there. If the Amesha Spentas are the archangels in Zoroastrian theology, the Yazatas are the angels. They are numbered by hundreds and by thousands,¹ by tens of thousands and by hundreds of thousands, nay even more.² About forty only, however, are mentioned in the extant Avestan text. Plutarch refers to twenty-four.³ The prominent Yazatas mentioned by name in Y16.4-6; Sr1.8-30; 2.8-30, closely correspond to the number mentioned by the Greek writer. Several of the Yazatas have individually consecrated to them a Yasht, or hymn of praise, which narrates the doings and functions of its respective genius. Besides the Yashts that form a special biographical literature of these minor divinities, the whole Iranian literature is filled with the record of their achievements. Ahura Mazda himself is a Yazata,⁴ even as he is an Amesha Spenta. He is the greatest and the best Yazata.⁵ Zarathushtra himself is spoken of as a Yazata.⁶	1. Yt6.1. 2. Vr8.1; for a list of minor divinities see Gray, The Foundations of the Iranian Religions, p, 221-224. 3. Is et Os., 47. 4. Y41.3 5. Y16.1; Yt17.16. 6. Y3.21; 7.21.
History of the Yazatas. Some of these Yazatas are, as we have already seen, pre-Zoroastrian and go back to the Indo-Iraniam period; but with the exception of Sraosha, Atar, and Ashi, they do not appear in the Gathas, though frequent enough in the Later Avesta. In fact, they permeate all the later texts, and form an indissoluble part of the Zoroastrian pantheon. We shall group them under two headings and distinguish those that are common to the Indians and the Iranians from those that are purely Iranian.
[174] Indo-lranian: Mithra, Airyaman, Haoma, Verethraghna, Parendi, Rata, Nairyosangha, Apam Napat, Ushah, and Vayu. Iranian: Atar, Ardvi Sura Anahita, Hvarekhshaeta, Maonghah, Tishtrya Drvaspa, Sraosha, Rashnu, Raman, Daena, Chisti, Erethe, Rasanstat, Ashi Vanghuhi, Arshtat, Asman, Zam, Manthra Spenta, Damoish Upamana, and Anaghra Raochah.
Characteristics of the Yazatas. Like their celestial elders, the Amesha Spentas, the Yazatas impersonate abstract ideas and virtues, or concrete objects of nature. Many of them preside over both spiritual and material phenomena. The nature Yazatas Hvarekhshaeta, Mithra, Maonghah, Ardvi Sura, Atar, and others personify the sun, light, moon, water, and fire. At times their names designate merely the objects of nature that they personify. This simultaneous treatment of the dual aspect of these angels is frequently found in one and the same paragraph and makes it difficult to distinguish the actual impersonations from the personified objects. Very often praise and sacrifice are offered more to the sun, light, moon, water, and fire as such than to the Yazatas presiding over them. We learn from Herodotus that the Persians sacrificed unto the sun, moon, earth, fire, water, and winds.⁷	7. Herod. 1.131.
Instances are not wanting in which a Yazata begins his career as the personification of some one particular virtue or an object of nature, but with the lapse of time either substitutes for it some other or widens his sphere of activity and takes some new virtue in the abstract or some new object of nature under his guardianship in addition to his original duty. Some of the Yazatas are lacking in real individuality.
The functions of the Yazatas. Various are the boons that the Yazatas give unto man.⁸ By hundreds and by thousands they gather together the light of the sun and pour it upon the earth.⁹ Men invoke them with sacrifices¹⁰ and in return they help men, They have a share of invocation and sacrifice offered unto Ahura Mazda, who is not jealous of the oblations thus dedicated to his subordinates. They are the holy, mighty, beneficent ones,¹¹ full of glory and healing.¹² Apart from the [175] general work which the Yazatas perform as a class of spiritual beings, they are severally allotted different functions, which we shall notice under their respective headings.	8. Y65.12, 14. 9. Yt6.1; Ny1.11 10. Yt8.11. 11. Y25.8; 65.12, 14; G2.6. 12. Ny3.11.
Offerings and sacrifices to the Yazatas. Libations of milk and Haoma, of the Draonah [dron], or wafer-bread, and of meat are the objects generally dedicated to the angels, who always demand that man shall not forget their invocation and praise. They are ever eager to protect and help man in peace or war, provided that man propitiates them with offerings and sacrifices. To Anahita as celestial guardian of the waters, to Drvaspa, who protects cattle, and to Vayu, the wind, a hundred horses, a thousand oxen, and ten thousand sheep are consecrated in sacrifice by some of the early kings and heroes. We shall turn to this subject later. Division of the Yazatas according to their grammatical gender. The Yazatas are both males and females, or rather the personifications of virtues and ideas that are in gender masculine and feminine. There is no distinction between these male and female divinities. Both of them are on the same level, occupy the same place of honour, and receive the same amount of homage. The gentle work becoming to the fair sex is allotted to female angels, and they are as powerful and awe-inspiring in their own sphere of activity as their fellow-workers of the opposite sex are in theirs. The female angels are: Ushah, Zam, Ardvi Sura Anahita, Drvaspa, Daena, Chisti, Arshtat, Erethe, Rasanstat Ashi Vanghuhi, Parendi, and Rata. All others are the male sex.
Group Yazatas. The usual manner of sacrificing unto the angels is to invoke each one separately by his name, or in company of his comrades and co-workers, or in joint pairs. On this last point we shall speak anon under a separate heading. Sometimes all the angels are invoked in a group under the comprehensive title of vispe Yazata, "all Yazatas,"¹³ Closely corresponding to the Vedic vishve Devâh, 'all Divinities.' In fact an entire book of the ritual is dedicated to the various spiritual lords under the title Visperad, literally meaning 'all lords.'	13. Y1.19; 2.18; Yt11.17; 17.19; WFr. 5.1.
Dual Yazatas. A particular feature common to the Avestan and Vedic religions is the arrangement of certain divinities in pairs, who are revered together. As some of the Yazatas guard more than one abstract virtue or impersonate more than one [176] natural phenomenon, it is not uncommon to find one Yazata entering into partnership with various Yazatas according to the nature of his work. For instance, Mithra, as the sovereign lord of wide pastures, forms a pair with Ahura; as the lord of light, he works in consort with Hvarekhshaeta, the genius of light; as the lord of truth, he works in company with Rashnu; and as the lord of plenty and prosperity, he enters into a comradeship with Raman. The more prominent of the dual divinities are Ahura-Mithra,¹⁴ Hvarekhshaeta-Mithra,¹⁵ Mithra-Rashnu,¹⁶ Mithra-Raman,¹⁷ Rashnu-Arshtat,¹⁸ Raman-Vayu,¹⁹ Daena-Chisti,²⁰ Ashi Vanghuhi-Parendi,²¹ and Asman-Zamyat.²² Sometimes a special attribute of one Yazata is extended to his associate, and they share the characteristic qualities and functions of each other.	14. Y1.11; 2.11; Ny1.7; 2.12; Yt10.113, 145. 15. Yt6; Ny1.2. 16. Vr7.2; Yt13.47, 48; 14.47; 24.52; Vd4.54. 17. Y2.3; 25.4; Vr2.9; Vd3.1; G1.2, 7, 8; S1.16, 2.16. 18. Y1.7; 2.7; Yt10.139; 12.40, S1.18; 2.18. 19. Y16.5; S1.21; 2.21. 20. Ny1.8; 2.8; S1.24; 2.24. 21. Y13.1; Yt8.38; 10.66; 24.8; S1.25; 2.25. 22. Yt1.16; 16.6; 42.3.
Classification of the Yazatas. The Avestan texts generally speak of two distinct orders of the Yazatas. They are mainyava, 'spiritual or celestial,' and gaethya, 'material or terrestrial.'²³ We are not, however, informed what particular Yazatas are grouped under each of the two classes. A very recent gloss in the Pahlavi version of the Avestan Litany Khurshid Niyayesh explains that the terrestrial angels are such as Fire, Ardvi Sura's Waters, the Wind, the Sun, the Moon, and the Earth. These are so called, adds the commentator, because they can be seen by man with his eyes, whereas the celestial ones cannot thus be seen.²⁴	23. Y1.19; 3.4; 7.4; 16.9; 22.27; 25.8; 71.5; Yt6.3, 4; 10.13; 19.22; S1.30; 2.30; Ny1.9; G2.6; Vd2.21; 19.30; WFr. 1.2. 24. Cf. Dhalla, Nyaishes, p. 35, New York, 1908.
In the following tabulation we shall class the Yazatas under two main divisions. Those Yazatas who commonly work for one and the same virtue, or preside over some one particular phenomenon, will be classed under the sub-titles of such a virtue or a phenomenon common to them. Thus, for example, all the Yazatas that guard rectitude will be treated in one group, and those that preside over 1ight will be dealt with together. In cases [177] where a Yazata presides over more than one virtue, we shall class this particular angel under the most prominent and characteristic of his virtues. CELESTIAL YAZATAS Divine wisdom: Daena, Chisti, and Sraosha. Rectitude: Mithra, Rashnu, Arshtat, Erethe, and Rasanstat. Victory: Verethraghna. Felicity: Raman. Charity: Rata. Peace: Akhshti. Spell : Manthra Spenta, Dahma Afriti, Damoish Upamana. Health: Airyaman, Haoma. Riches: Ashi Vanghuhi, Parendi. Cattle: Drvaspa, Geush Urvan. TERRESTRIAL YAZATAS Light: Hvarekhshaeta, Maonghah, Anaghra Raochah, Asman, Ushah; (star-Yazatas) Tishtrya, Vanant, Satavaesa, and Haptoiringa. Wind: Vayu. Fire: Atar, Nairyosangha. Water: Ardvi Sura Anahita, Apam Napat, and Ahurani Earth: Zam. DAENA
Religion deified. One of the least personified Yazatas is Daena, even though she is a female divinity of religion. Very little is known of her personality more than the fact that she is the genius of the Holy Law of Mazda. She has a Yasht assigned to her which is called after her name; and yet even this is entirely consecrated to Chisti, who is her usual associate. The offerings are made to her companion, and various boons are asked from her. Daena has no share in this. She is simply mentioned by name in invocation along with Chisti. Even here she is assigned a secondary place, for Chisti takes precedence over her. Throughout the Avestan texts in which the two are mentioned together, Daena stands second in the order of invocation.²⁵ Ashi [178] Vanghuhi, or Good Piety, is her sister and Sraosha, Rashnu, and Mithra are her brothers.²⁶ The twenty-fourth day of every month is dedicated to her.²⁷	25. Y22.24; 25.5; S1.24; 2.24; Ny1.8; 2.8. 26. Yt17.15, 17.
The names of the religion. It is called the daena vanghu Mazdayasnya, 'the good Mazda-worshipping religion,'²⁸ or daena Mazdayasna, 'the Mazda-worshipping religion.'²⁹ It is named conjointly with Ahura and Zarathushtra and called Âhuirya Zarathushtri, 'the Ahurian Zarathushtrian.'³⁰ It is further named dâta Zarathushtri, 'the Law of Zarathushtra.³¹ It is also spoken of without associating it with Ahura Mazda or Zarathushtra as hu-daena, 'good religion.'³² The religion in standing opposition to the Mazda-wotshipping religion is always called daevayasnya, 'the daeva-worshipping religion.' The preliminary short prayers, the Gahs, the Niyayeshes, the Yashts generally begin with a short confessionary formula in which the reciter says he is the worshipper of Mazda, a Zarathushtrian, he is against the daevas, and he is of Ahurian faith, Ahura-tkaesho. One of the Nasks, the Vendidad in its original form, vi-daeva-dâta, means 'the Law against the daevas or demons'.³³ This religion of the demons is called aka-daena, 'evil religion';³⁴ or duzh-daena, 'evil religion.'³⁵ The man who follows the same religion is hâmo-daena, 'the co-religionist.'³⁶ The man of other religion is of anya-tkaesha or anya-varena.³⁷	27. Y16.6; S1.24; 2.24. 28. Y1.13; 2.13; 9.26; 11.16; 16.6; 22.24, 25; 25.5, 6; 70.3; Vr6.1; Yt2.13; 16.20; S1.24; 2.24; Ny1.8; 2.8; Vd19.6, 7, 13, 16. 29. Y8.1, 3; 22.25; 25.6; 71.4; Vr12.3; Yt8.23, 29; 10.68, 126, 127; 11.3; 16.17; 18.8; 19.2; 24.52; G2.7; Vd2.42; 3.30, 31, 41, 42; 5.21; 9.2, 47, 52; 10.18. 30. Y12.9; 60.3; Yt13.99; Vd2.1, 2. 31. Y1.13; 2.13; 22.25; 25.6; Yt11.3; Vd5.25; 19.16. 32. Vr3.3; Yt4.10; 19.95; 22.18; G4.8. 33. Y1.13; 2.13; 22.25; 25.6; 71.5; Yt11.17; Vd5.22; 19.16. 34. Vd18.9. 35. Y65.6; Yt5.109; 9.31; 19.47, 87; 22.36. 36. Vd4.44. 37. Y16.2; Vd12.21; 15.2.
The excellence of the Mazda-worshipping religion. The angel Sraosha is the teacher of the religion.³⁸ Arshtat, the genius presiding over rectitude, is once identified with Daena.³⁹ Ahura Mazda brought for Haoma the heavenly made star-bespangled [179] girdle and the good Mazda-worshipping religion.⁴⁰ He asked Yima to be the bearer of his religion to mankind, but the illustrious king plead6d his inability to undertake such a mighty task.⁴¹ Zarathushtra then became the prophet of Ahura Mazda, and brought his religion to the world. The Kingly Glory clave unto king Vishtaspa and he thought and spoke and acted according to the religion.^{42^{He became the arm and support of the Ahurian Zoroastrian religion.⁴³ He found her fettered in chains and made her widely known.⁴⁴}}	38. Y57.24; Yt11.24. 39. Vr7.2. 40. Y9.26. 41. Vd2.3, 4. 42. Yt19.84. 43. Yt13.99. 44. Yt13.100.
The Ahurian Zoroastrian religion, We are told, is the greatest, best, and fairest of all religions that are and that will be.⁴⁵ She is as much higher in greatness, goodness, and fairness than others as the Vourukasha is above all waters, or a great river, flowing swifter than a rivulet, or as a great tree overshadowing small plants, or as the heaven compassing the earth.⁴⁶ She is beautiful and spread far and wide.⁴⁷ As dissensions-dispelling, she causes weapons to be laid down.⁴⁸ She rejoices, protects, and guards the righteous man.⁴⁹ She takes away the sins of those who confess their wrongs and removes their evil thoughts, evil words, and evil deeds, as the powerfully blowing wind cleanses the plain.⁵⁰ The Mazdayasnian religion gives all good things of life.⁵¹ She gives purification to him who cleanses his self with good thoughts, good words, and good deeds.⁵² The place where the faithful pray and sacrifice according to religion is happy.⁵³ Hard work and industry are prime Zoroastrian virtues. Agriculture is the staple industry of the people and the texts say that sowing corn again and again feeds the Mazda-worshipping religion, it makes her walk with a hundred men's feet and suckles her with a thousand women's breasts.⁵⁴ The householder prays for the long-enduring excellence of the religion in his house.⁵⁵ Priests going afar for the propagation of religion, pray for a good memory and the soundness of the body.⁵⁶ He is not an athravan who has not girded his loins for religion.⁵⁷ The white colour, it is said is symbolic of the Mazda-worshipping religion.⁵⁸	45. Y12.9. 46. Vd5.22-25. 47. Yt10.64. 48. Y12.9. 49. Yt24.14. 50. Vd3.41, 42. 51. Yt11.3. 52. Vd5.21; 10.18. 53. Vd3.1. 54. Vd3.30, 31. 55. Y60.3. 56. Yt16.16. 57. Vd18.1-4. 58. Yt10.126.
[180] CHISTI
Divinity of religious wisdom. Unlike her partner, just mentioned, Chisti, divinity of religious wisdom, has a personality that is sharply defined. Her standing epithets are 'good' and 'most upright.' She is the most upright, holy, bearing libations, wearing a white garment as her emblem.⁵⁹ Zarathushtra longs to own her and devoutly implores her to grant him, among other things, the clearest vision.⁶⁰ The prophet's noble consort Hvovi, as well as the itinerant priests and the lords of the country, are among her supplicants, asking various boons, which she grants to those who are pure in heart.⁶¹ The faithful long to approach Ahura Mazda through the deeds of Chisti.⁶²	59. Yt10.126. 60. Yt16.2-13. 61. Yt16.15, 17, 19. 62. Y36.4.
The word chisti is often used to denote spiritual wisdom. The eighth name of Ahura Mazda is chisti or wisdom, and the ninth is 'possessed of wisdom.'⁶³ The world first came into being through Ahura Mazda's understanding and wisdom.⁶⁴ Haoma makes the mind of the poor exalted with wisdom.⁶⁵	63. Yt1.8, 9. 64. Yt1.26. 65. Y10.13.
SRAOSHA
His personality. Sraosha is one of the few angels whose prominence increases with the lapse of time. Two Yashts are dedicated to him. The latter of which occurs also in the Yasna. He is the angel whose name has reached afar and whose very body is the holy spell.⁶⁶ Sraosha occupied a conspicuous place in the Gathas, and was associated with Ahura Mazda and his six abstract figures that have now become a corporate body of the seven Amesha Spentas. His close connection with them is remembered by the composers of the Later Avestan texts. We are told that he was the first in the entire creation to worship Ahura Mazda, the Amesha Spentas. and the two protectors.⁶⁷ He [181] chanted the five holy Gathas of Zarathushtra in order to propitiate the archangels.⁶⁸ From his battles against the demons, he returns victorious to the celestial assembly of the archangels.⁶⁹ His dwelling is supported by a thousand pillars, is self-lighted from within, and star-spangled from without.⁷⁰ He drives forth in a heavenly chariot drawn by four white shining horses that are fleeter than the winds, fleeter than the rain, fleeter than the winged birds, and fleeter than the well-darted arrow.⁷¹ They overtake all, but none can overtake them, when Sraosha drives towards Hapta Hindu or the land of seven rivers in India.⁷² The sacred formula Ahuna Vairya [Ahunwar] and the other consecrated spells are his weapons.⁷³ His sisters are Ashi and Daena, and his brothers are Rashnu and Mithra,⁷⁴ and unto him Haoma offered sacrifice.⁷⁵ Owing to his victorious courage and wisdom the archangels come down to the seven zones.⁷⁶	66. Y3.20; 4.23; Yt13.85; Vd18.14. 67. Y57.2, 6. 68. Y57.8. 69. Y57.12. 70. Y57.21. 71. Y57.27, 28. 72. Y57.29. 73. Y57.22. 74. Yt17.l6. 75. Y57.19. 76. Y57.23
Sraosha's attributes. His standing epithets are: holy, well-shapen, victorious, ad world-increasing. He is the strongest, the sturdiest, the most active, the swiftest, and the most awe-inspiring of youths.⁷⁷ He is the word incarnate, the valiant wielder of the club, which is levelled against all demoniacal powers, especially against the fiendish Druj.⁷⁸ He is courageous, mighty, swift, powerful, terrible, and heroic.⁷⁹ He is a formidable foe to the wicked. He is not afraid or anyone, but the demons tremble at his sight and flee to the region of darkness.⁸⁰ His mace does havoc on them. He is the warrior of the strong arms, who breaks the skulls of the demons.⁸¹ Himself unconquerable, he is the conqueror of all.	77. Y51.13. 78. Y3.20; 4.23; 57.1, 33; Yt11.0, 23; Sr1.17; Vd18.14. 79. Y57.3, 11, 12, 1:, 23. 80. Y57.18; Yt11.13. 81. Y57.34; Yt11.9.
The work of Sraosha. Mazda has revealed his religion to Sraosha, who now teaches it to the world of humanity.⁸² This was the prime function, as we have seen above, that the Gathas allotted him. The Younger Avestan texts speak more of his all-absorbing work of combating the demons. In the Gathas he preached devout submission to Mazda's mandates; in the Later Avesta he does the fighting with the rebels that revolt against [182] divine authority. He, the exalted one, comes down to the creation of Mazda, with loins girt up to fight the demons.⁸³ Sleep has forsaken his eyelids since the two spirits Spenta Mainyu and Angra Mainyu created the world.⁸⁴ Ahura Mazda has created him to withstand the demon Aeshma.⁸⁵ With an uplifted club he guards the world after sunset from the onslaughts of Aeshma, his constant rival, and against all the forces of wickedness.⁸⁶ Three times during the day and three times during the night the holy Sraosha descends on earth to smite the evil spirit Angra Mainyu, Aeshma, the demons of Mazandaran, and all other demons.⁸⁷ Just as the shepherd dog guards and protects cattle against harm, so does Sraosha protect men; and the faithful, therefore, yearn with good thoughts, good words, and good deeds to live under his constant guardianship.⁸⁸ The fire of the hearth calls Sraosha for help in the third part of the night, for the demon Azi threatens to extinguish his life.⁸⁹ Sraosha, thereupon, wakes up the cock Parodarsh, his ally, who lifts up his voice to rouse the world of humanity, and warns it against the mischief of Bushyansta, who lulls it to sleep.⁹⁰ With his terrible mace levelled at the head of Druj, he enters into controversy with her, extorts from the demoness her secret devices,⁹¹ and smites her.⁹² As the teacher of religion unto men he moves about spreading religious lore at his will over the whole material world.⁹³	82. Y57.24; Yt11.14. 83. Y57.30. 84. Y57.17; Yt11.11, 12. 85. Yt11.15. 86. Y57.10, 16; Yt11.10, 11. 87. Y57.31, 32. 88. Yt11.7. 89. Vd18.22. 90. Vd18.23, 24. 91. Vd18.30-59. 92. Y57.15; Yt11.3, 10. 93. Y57.24.
The master of rituals takes his name from Sraosha and is called Sraoshâvarez.⁹⁴ Parodarsh is called the Sraoshâvarez of Sraosha.⁹⁵ The implement of administering stripes to the criminals is called Sraoshocharana.⁹⁶	94. Vr3.1; Yt24.15; Vd5.25, 57, 58; 7.17, 18, 71; G3.5. 95. Vd18.14, 15. 96. Vd3.36, 37; etc.
Sraosha's gifts. He is implored to give strength to the spans of the warriors' steeds in battle, soundness of body, and power to meet the adversary.^96a He is like a firmly built house unto the poor, who look to him for support.⁹⁷ The faithful entreat him to guard them in both the worlds.⁹⁸ The householder [183] invokes him to smite disobedience in his family.⁹⁹ He smites Kunda.¹⁰⁰ The Mazdayasnians are asked to sacrifice unto him.¹⁰¹ Evils of all kinds vanish from the house, clan, town, and country, wherein the righteous man thinking good thoughts, speaking good words, and doing good deeds, welcomes and sacrifices unto Sraosha.¹⁰² The faithful pray for all the houses protected by Sraosha, wherein he is friendly, beloved, and honoured.¹⁰³ They beseech him to come to their help.¹⁰⁴	96a. Y57.26. 97. Y51.10; Yt11.3. 98. Y57.25. 99. Y60.5. 100. Vd19.41. 101. Y57.13. 102. Y57.14. 103. Y57.35; Yt11.20. 104. Y57.3.
MITHRA
His place in the Avestan pantheon. Of all the Indo-Iranian divinities that have found their place in the Zarathushtrian theology, Mithra is the most prominent figure. As an associate of Varuna, Mithra's individuality was eclipsed during the Indo-Iranian period. After the separation of these two groups of the Aryan people, Mithra rose to great eminence, and was the premier divinity in Western Iran, when Zarathushtra preached his religion. During the period of syncretism after the passing away of the prophet, Mithra became the most conspicuous angel of the Younger Avestan period. The longest Yasht, which is eight times longer than the Yasht composed in honour of Ahura Mazda, celebrates his greatness. He is the most masculine, exacting, implacable, and relentless of all the Yazatas. Ahura Mazda has created him the most glorious of the spiritual Yazatas,¹⁰⁵ as worthy of sacrifice and prayer as himself.¹⁰⁶ The description of him in the Yasht that is dedicated in his honour gives a vivid picture of the character of the pre-Zarathushtrian divinities that came to be worshipped in Iran. Mithra was the most eminent of the primitive Ahuras, as he was conjointly worshipped with Ahura Mazda.¹⁰⁷ The writer who consecrated Yasht 10 in his honour was conversant with the past greatness of this divinity, whose cult had struck so deep a root in the popular mind. He certainly was unsparing in eulogizing the work of this genius in the universe. The texts sometimes speak of Mithra in terms that are usually applied to Ahura Mazda, and the latter [184] himself is represented in this particular Yasht as having sacrificed unto Mithra.¹⁰⁸ The heptad of the Amesha Spentas having been already complete, Mithra is not raised to the rank of these higher beings. but is assigned a place among the Yazatas. The Old Persian Inscriptions of the Achaemenian kings mention a very limited number of the celestial beings. Mithra occupies a prominent place among these divinities. Artaxerxes Mnemon and Artaxerxes Ochus invoke Mithra for help and protection.¹⁰⁹	105. Vd19.35; Nyl.7. 106. Yt10.1. 107. Y1.11; 2.11; Yt10.113, 145; Ny1.7; 2.12. 108. Yt10.123. 109. SUS. a; Ham. b; Pers.4.
Mithra's attributes. Of all the Yazatas that rule over this earth, Mithra is the strongest, the most sturdy, the most active, the most swift, and the most victorious.¹¹⁰ Ahura Mazda has created him the most glorious of all the spiritual Yazatas.¹¹¹ The composer of the Yasht who sings to his favourite divinity applies to him the same honorific epithets as are applied to the godhead. Mithra is called omniscient, which is strictly speaking the epithet of Mazda alone.¹¹² He is the greatest of the Yazatas, with body shining like the moon, and face (ainika), as brilliant as Tishtrya.¹¹³ It is interesting to note that the Rig Veda uses the correspording Skt. form (anika), and says that Varuna's face is as shining as that of Agni.¹¹⁴ He is the strongest of the strong the sturdiest of the sturdy, the most intelligent among the divinities, victorious, glorious, heroic, and the undeceivable one, deep, courageous, weal-giving, propitiated when invoked, exalted, skilful, with a body made of spells, and a warrior of powerful ,arms, the leader of hosts, of a thousand devices, lordly, ruling, the all-knowing one, the one of good renown, of good form and glory, granting boons and pastures at his will, the giver of good, of ten thousand spies, heroic, and the all-knowing.¹¹⁵ He is ever afoot, watchful, valiant, a dominating figure in the assembly, causing the waters to flow, listening to appeals, causing the trees to grow, ruling over the district full of devices, a creature of wisdom.¹¹⁶ He is the swiftest among the swift, generous among the generous, valiant among the valiant, chief among the chiefs [185] of assembly, increase-giving, fatness-giving, flock-giving, son-giving, life-giving, felicity-giving, joy-giving, glory-giving, kingdom-giving, and piety-giving.¹¹⁷ Mithra is highly merciful, foremost, and peerless.¹¹⁸ He is the protector and guardian of an creatures.¹¹⁹ He is the most fiend-smiting among all the Yazatas.¹²⁰ He is both good and bad for men and nations, Peace and War between nations are from him.¹²¹ With his wide knowledge, he furthers the creation of Spenta Mainyu.¹²² The sixteenth day of a month and the seventh month of a year are sacred to Mithra.	110. Yt10.98, 135. 111. Yt19.35. 112. Yt10.24, 35. 113. Yt10.142, 143. 114. RV. 7.88, 2. 115. Yt10.24, 25, 27, 31, 35, 46, 56, 60, 63, 69, 82, 141, 143. 116. Yt10.61. 117. Yt10.16, 65. 118. Yt10.140. 119. Yt10.54. 120. Yt10.98, 135. 121. Yt10.29. 122. Yt10.142.
Mithra's associates. Among those who work in unison with Mithra, Ahura Mazda stands first; Mithra-Ahura ate invoked together as a couple. Their union is pre-Zarathushtrian and corresponds to the Vedic Mitra-Varuna. A detailed account of their joint activity is not found in the Avesta, but they are called the two exalted, imperishable, and holy ones,¹²³ and are invoked for special help.¹²⁴ Mithra is again jointly invoked with Hvarkhshaeta, the angel presiding over the sun. This is natural, because one of the chief Iunctions of Mithra is to work as the guardian of light. Of the five Zoroastrian Nyaishes, or litanies, two are consecrated to the sun and Mithra, and these two are always recited together.¹²⁵ On the moral side Mithra protects truth. Consequently at an early date he is associated with Rashnu, who is the chief genius of truth.¹²⁶ They are united as two friends,¹²⁷ One of the principal attributes of Mithra is that he is the lord of wide pastures. In this capacity he joins in partnership with Raman Khvastra, who is essentially the angel that gives good pastures and happy dwellings, together with full joy of life.¹²⁸	123. Y1.11; 2.11; Nyl.7; 2.2; Yt10.113, 145. 124. Yt10.113. 125. Ny1.2; Yt6. 126. Vr7.2; Yt13.47, 48; 14.47; 24.52; Vd4.54. 127. Yt10.79, 81. 128. Y2.3; 25.4; Vr2.9; Vd3.1; G1.2, 7, 8; S1.16; 2.16.
Mithra, the genius of light. On the material side Mithra presides over light, especially over the light that radiates from [186] the sun with the radiance of which he is identical on the physical plane. As the harbinger of light and herald of the dawn, Mithra precedes the rising sun on the summits of mountains, and from there watches all Aryan settlements, nay more, even all the seven Zones of the world.¹²⁹ The great vault of heaven is therefore Mithra's garment.¹³⁰ Ahura Mazda and the Amesha Spentas, being in one accord with the sun, have built up for Mithra a dwelling as wide as the earth in this material world, on the great mountain Hara Berezaiti (Alburz) where neither night nor darkness, nor cold wind, nor hot wind, nor sickness, impurity; death and clouds can ever reach.¹³¹ From this elysian abode Mithra surveys the whole universe at a glance.¹³² Sleepless and ever wakeful, he watches and spies the doings of men, like Vedic Mitra-Varuna, as an infallible sentinel of heaven. He has posted eight of his comrades as scouts on the celestial watch-towers to spy upon men's doings.¹³³ After the sun has set, Mithra traverses the world all around, and surveys all that is between earth, and the heavens.¹³⁴ Ahura Mazda consequently has ordained that Mithra should watch from on high over the entire moving world.¹³⁵ The heat of Mithra it is, accordingly, that gives warmth and life to the plant world and bestows fertility upon this earth. Mithra, as a guardian genius in the celestial realm, superintends the vast expanse of the universe. Varuna has a thousand eyes,¹³⁶ and Mithra is constantly spoken of as having a thousand ears and ten thousand eyes. The brilliant sun is the lord of yonder heavens, who with his infinite rays of light pervades the whole world, Mithra furthermore receives in the Avesta the standing epithets dainghu-paiti, 'the lord of countries,' and vourugaoyaoiti 'of wide pastures.' His light is the dispeller of darkness and of all the sin and evil concomitant with it. Nothing is secret from Mithra's penetrating gaze. Mitra-Varuna have a thousand-eyed spies (spasah), who descend from heaven and traverse the world, watching the doings of mankind. Mithra, as we have seen, has ten thousand spies (spaso), who work as his messengers.	129. Yt10.13, 15; Vd19.28. 130. Yt13.3. 131. Yt10.44, 50, 51. 132. Yt10.64. 133. Yt10.45. 134. Yt10.95. 135. Yt10.103. 136. RV. 7.34.10.
Mithra, the inveterate foe of falsehood. Yet after all, the greater and more important work of Mithra lies in the abstract [187] sphere. At a very early date Mithra was styled the warder of truth. Light is synonymous with truth, as darkness is with falsehood. Mithra being primarily the lord of light, it was but a step from the physical to the moral sphere that he should be depicted impersonating truth. From the divine activity of Mithra, as portrayed in the Avestan texts, we gather more information of his aggressively active crusade against falsehood than of his work in upholding truth. In his warring capacity of lord of hosts, Mithra works more than all else to deal a destructive blow to the demon of falsehood, thereby strengthening the realm of truth.
To speak untruth was a henious sin. Truth Was a paramount among the ancient Iranians. It was regarded as everything, it was religion. On this very account we see human evil reflectively focussed in the Avesta as the druj, 'Lie,' which corresponds to drauga in the Old Persian Inscriptions of the Achaemenian kings, a conception almost like that of the devil. Herodotus writes that one of the first things that every Persian child was taught was to speak the truth.¹³⁷ Lying unto Mithra brings the offender the sin of being a deceiver of Mithra. The faithful is exhorted never to lie, for Mithra is unforgiving toward liars. Sad is the abode wherein live those that lie unto Mithra, for they are childless, and even their cattle stray along the road shedding tears over their chins.¹³⁸ Neither the lord of the house, nor the lord of the clan, nor the lord of the town, nor the lord of the country should ever lie unto this celestial being.¹³⁹ He is the protector and guardian of these lords, only so long as they lie not unto him.¹⁴⁰ If, however, they commit such a sin, Mithra is offended and angered, and destroys house, clan, town, and the country, along with their masters and nobles.¹⁴¹ Nor can these culprit lords escape him, for he overtakes them, no matter how swiftly they may run.¹⁴² The man of little faith who thinks that he can evade Mithra and indulges in falsehood is mistaken;¹⁴³ but Mithra thinks in his mind that were the evil thoughts, evil words, and evil deeds of the earthly man a hundred times worse, they would not rise as high as the good thoughts, good words, and good deeds of the heavenly Mithra.¹⁴⁴ Or again if the innate wisdom of the earthly man were a hundred times greater, [188] it would not rise as high as the heavenly wisdom of the Mithra; or if the ears of the earthly man could hear a hundred times better, he would not hear so well as the heavenly Mithra who with a thousand devices of his, hears well and sees every man that tells a lie.¹⁴⁵ To such a one Mithra gives neither strength nor vigour, glory nor reward,¹⁴⁶ but on the contrary, he inflicts dire punishment. Into the hearts of all such he strikes terror, taking away the strength of their arms, fleetness from their feet, the sight from their eyes, and the hearing from their ears.¹⁴⁷ It is he that hurls down their heads as he deals death.¹⁴⁸ Mithra keeps back harm and death from him who lies not unto him.¹⁴⁹ Neither the wound of the well-sharpened spear nor that of the well-darted arrow harm him whom Mithra comes to help.¹⁵⁰	137. Herod. 1. 136 138. Yt10.38. 139. Yt10.17. 140. Yt10.80. 141. Yt10.18. 142. Yt10.20. 143. Yt10.105. 144. Yt10.106. 145. Yt10.107. 146. Yt10.62. 147. Yt10.23, 48, 63. 148. Yt10.37. 149. Yt10.22. 150. Yt10.63.
Mithra the guardian of contracts. Ahura Mazda enjoins upon Zarathushtra not to break the contract that is entered into with the righteous or with the wicked, for Mithra stands for both the righteous and the wicked.¹⁵¹ In his role of genius of light he guards the sanctity of oaths, and the word mithra in the Avesta is frequently used as a common noun, meaning 'contract.'¹⁵² For that reason, he who violates the oath, whether it be with a believer or a non-believer, feels the visitations of the stern angel's wrath. The crime of the one who thus violates a contract is called Mithra-druj, 'deceiving Mithra.' Such a criminal is heavily punished, and his guilt falls upon the shoulders of his kinsmen for years in the next world, making them answerable for it by punishment.¹⁵³ The ethics of thus holding a man's family and kinsmen responsible for his guilt seems to be a relic of the primitive type of group morality.	151. Yt10.2. 152. Ytl0.116, 117; Vd4.2-16. 153. Vd4.5-10.
Mithra as a war divinity. Incidental allusion has been made above to Mithra as the lord of hosts. For that reason it is easy to comprehend the fact that warring nations invoke Mithra for help before going into battle; and the lord of hosts sides with that army which excels in offering sacrifice.¹⁵⁴ When Mithra marches out amid the hostile armies on the battlefield, he throws confusion into the camp of the enemy that has offended him, [189] binds the hands of his offenders, covers their eyesight, takes away their power of hearing, deprives their feet of movement,¹⁵⁵ and breaks asunder their lines of battle, striking terror in their entire array.¹⁵⁶ Though the enemy use arrows and spears, swords and maces, they nevertheless miss the mark in every case,¹⁵⁷ and, all the while, Mithra rushes destructively from a thousand directions against the foes.¹⁵⁸ The adversaries who have lied unto him he kills by fifties and hundreds, by hundreds and thousands, by thousands and tens of thousands, by tens of thousands and myriads.¹⁵⁹ Confusing their minds, he shatters their limbs and breaks their bones asunder,¹⁶⁰ at the same time as he throws down their heads¹⁶¹ he enters the battlefield in person, and levels his club at both the horse and the rider.¹⁶²	154. Yt10.9. 155. Yt10.48, 63. 156. Yt10.36, 41. 157. Yt10.39, 40. 158. Yt10.69. 159. Yt10.43. 160. Yt10.71, 72. 161. Yt10.37. 162. Yt10.101.
Mithra�s chariot. Mithra goes forth on his daily round through the heavens and upon the earth driving in a celestial car that rolls upon one golden wheel, evidently the sun, with a shining axle.¹⁶³ Ahura Mazda made his chariot of heavenly substance and inlaid it with stars.¹⁶⁴ Like Sraosha's vehicle it is drawn by four white stallions that eat celestial food and are are undying, shining, and spiritual.¹⁶⁵ When Mithra drives on aloft over the seven zones he is escorted on the left and the right, in front and from behind, by Sraosha, Nairyosangha, Ashi Vanghuhi, Parendi, Nairya Ham-Vareti, Kingly Glory, the Sovereign Sky, Damoish Upamana, Rashnu, Chisti, Atar, Verethraghna, and the Fravashis.¹⁶⁶ With bows and arrows, spears and clubs, and with swords and maces placed by thousands in his chariot, this divine war lord plunges, mace in hand, into the field of battle, smiting and killing the wicked that have been false to him.¹⁶⁷ Even Angra Mainyu and the fiendish demons flee away in terror before Mithra.^l68 After smiting the demons and the men who have lied unto him, he drives forward through the seven Zones.¹⁶⁹	163. Ytl0.67,136. 164. Yt10.143. 165. Yt10. 68, 125. 166. Yt10.52,66,68,100,126,127. 167. Yt10.96, 102, 112, 127-132. 168. Ytl0.97,99,134. 169. Yt10. 133.
Mithra�s wrath. Mithra bemoans with uplifted hands before Ahura Mazda the disregard and negligence of men who do not invoke him by his name, even though he protects and guards [190] them.¹⁷⁰ If he were invoked by men, he says, as other angels are, he would come at the appointed time for help to the righteous.¹⁷¹ He looks, therefore, for votaries who will sacrifice unto him, so that in his might he may shower gifts upon them. Happy indeed is the man who thus gains the good-will of Mithra, for this divine angel henceforth bestows upon him radiance and glory, soundness of body, riches and weal, offspring and sovereignty.¹⁷² But woe is to him that is sparing in Mithra's invocation. For such a Wight calamity is in store, as Mithra is terrible to deal with when his righteous wrath is kindled. Mithra, when angered or disregarded in worship, inflicts poverty and wretchedness, sickness and death upon the offender, depriving him also of his offspring and power.¹⁷³ The house, clan, town, and country in which an insult is offered to Mithra are levelled to the ground.¹⁷⁴ He deprives the evil countries of their greatness and glory and victory, and renders them helpless.¹⁷⁵ The wise therefore pray that they may never come across Mithra's wrath,¹⁷⁶ and invocation is the best means of appeasing the vengeful angel.¹⁷⁷	170. Yt10.53, 54. 171. Yt10.55,73,74. 172. Yt10.108, 109. 173. Yt10.110,111. 174. Yt10.28.87. 175. Yt10.27. 176. Yt10.69, 98, 135. 177. Yt10.120.
Sacrifices to Mithra. Varuna sits on the strewn grass at the sacrifice.¹⁷⁸ Similarly, the faithful devoutly invoke Mithra by his name with libations, and implore him to come and sit at the sacrifice, to listen to the invocation, to be pleased with it, to accept it, and to place it with love to their credit in paradise.¹⁷⁹ Ahura Mazda himself offered a sacrifice unto him in the shining Garonmana.¹⁸⁰ Zarathushtra is asked to offer sacrifices unto Mithra and so are the Mazdayasnians asked to sacrifice unto him with cattle and birds, along with Haoma and libations.¹⁸¹ The faithful who desires to drink the holy libations consecrated in honour of Mithra is required to undergo certain penances. He has to wash his body for three days and three nights and undergo thirty stripes, or he might wash his body for two days and two nights and undergo twenty stripes, as the occasion requires. Anyone who has no knowledge of the ritual is prohibited from partaking of the sacred libation.¹⁸² In these observances we can [191] recognize the beginnings of the later Mithraic rites and mysteries for which the cult of Mithra, centuries afterwards, became famous. Mithra demands that his sacrifice shall be performed with out-and-out devotion. Ahura Mazda says unto Zarathushtra that if a sacrifice is offered unto Mithra by a holy and righteous priest, Mithra will be satisfied, and will straightway come to the dwelling of the supplicant, but if it is performed by an unholy priest, it is rejected, no matter how long has been the sacrifice, nor how many bundles of the sacred twigs are consecrated.¹⁸³ Mithra promptly comes to help when he is satisfied.¹⁸⁴ He brings sovereignty for him who has piously offered him libations,¹⁸⁵ and gives him a good abode with desirable possessions.¹⁸⁶ He is to be offered sacrifices around and within countries, in and above countries, under and before and behind countries.¹⁸⁷	178. RV. 1.2.64; 5.72.2. 179. Ytl0.31,32,57. 180. Yt10.123. 181. Yt10.119. 182. Yt10.120-122. 183. Yt10.137-139. 184. Ytl0.87. 185. Yt10.16. 186. Ytl0.77. 187. Yt10.144; Ny2.11.
Mithra's boons. He is constantly spoken of as giving happy and joyful abode, to the Aryan peoples. Many indeed are the boons asked for from Mithra by his votaries, who always approach him with love, homage and sacrifice. He is generally invoked to come to the faithful for help, freedom, joy, mercy, healing, victory, well-being, and sanctification. The masters of the house, clan, town, and country invoke him for help, so do the poor, when wronged, look to him for the redress of their grievances.^l88 The husbandman solicits that rich pasture may never fail him. Horsemen sacrifice unto him even from on horseback and beg swiftness for their teams, vigour for their bodies, and might for overthrowing their adversaries.¹⁸⁹ Neither the spear of the foe nor his arrow hits the man whom Mithra helps,¹⁹⁰ for he guards and protects man from behind and in front.¹⁹¹ furthers the possessions of man, he gives flocks of cattle, male offspring, chariots, spacious mansions, and prosperity¹⁹² he is therefore entreated to grant riches, courage, victory, good name and fame, felicity, wisdom, and strength to smite the adversaries.¹⁹³ The worshipper prays that just as the sun, rising beyond the Alburz, reaches the height, so may he, with his ascending prayer, rise above the will of Angra Mainyu and approach [192] Mithra.¹⁹⁴ Mithra's help, it may be added, is invoked for both the worlds.¹⁹⁵	188. Yt10.83, 84. 189. Yt10.1,94,114. 190. Yt10.24. 191. Yt10.46. 192. Yt10.28,30. 193. Yt10.33, 34, 58, 59. 194. Yt10.118. 195. Yt10.93.
RASHNU
Personification of truth. This angel is preeminently genius of truth. His standing epithet is razishta, 'most upright'. To adopt the phraseology of the Younger Avestan texts, Rashnu is the most holy, the most well-shaped, exalted, courageous, most knowing, the most discerning, the most fore-knowing, most far-seeing, the most helping, the greatest smiter of thieves and bandits.^l96 He is as bright as the fire.¹⁹⁷ Zarathushtra blesses king Vishtaspa that he may be of right faith like Rashnu.¹⁹⁸	196. Yt10.126; 12.5-8. 197. Vsp. 16.1. 198. AZ.7.
The eighteenth day of the month is consecrated to him.¹⁹⁹	199. Y16.5; Sr. 1.18; 2.18.
Rashnu presides at the ordeal court. The twelfth Yasht consecrated to Rashnu deals mainly with the preparation of the ordeal; and his presence at such trials is deemed indispensable.²⁰⁰ In fact he is the chief celestial judge who presides at the ordeal. No specific habitat is assigned to Rashnu. The officiating priest has to invoke him to come to the ordeal from whatever part of the world he happens to be in at that time, whether in one of the seven zones of the habitable world, or on the great waters or on some part of the wide earth, or on the high mountains, on the stars and the moon and the sun, or in the endless light, even in paradise.²⁰¹ The man who lies at the ordeal offends both Rashnu and Mithra, and is consequently punished.²⁰²	200. See Dhalla, 'The Use of Ordeals among the Ancient Iranians,' in Le Museon, vol. II, p. 121-133, Louvain, 1910. 201. Yt12.9-38 202. Vd4.54,55.
We have already seen how Rashnu is often invoked in company with Mithra, and likewise with Sraosha; in a similar manner, as noted in the next paragraph, we generally find Arshtat the female personification of rectitude, invoked alongside of Rashnu.²⁰³	203. Y1.7; 2.7; Yt10.139; 12.40; Sr.1.18; 2.1.8.
[193]
ARSHTAT
Divinity of rectitude. Arshtat or Arshti is the female genius of truth. She does not play any prominent part in the Younger Avestan period. She co-operates with Mithra, Sraosha, and Rashnu in the judgment of the dead. Although the 18th Yasht is dedicated to Arshtat and bears her name, there is not in it a single mention of her by name; the entire hymn treats only of the Aryan Glory. In two Sirozah passages (1.26, 2.26) Mount Ushidarena literally meaning 'the keeper of intelligence,' is invoked in company with Arshtat; and tradition points to this mountain at the place where Zarathushtra retired to meditate on the eternal problems of life and commune with the divine. As noted above, Arshtat is generally invoked with Rashnu;²⁰⁴ and she is called the world-increasing and the world-profiting.²⁰⁵ In one instance she is identified with the Mazdayasnian religion.²⁰⁶ The faithful invoke her excellence.²⁰⁷	204. Y1.7; 2.7; Yt10.139; 12.40; Sr. 1.18; 2.18. 205. Y1.7; 2.7; Vsp. 7.2; Yt10.139; 11.16; 13.18; Sr. 1.26; 2.26 206. Vsp. 7.2 207. Y57.34.
As conjectured by Foy,²⁰⁸ and established by Jackson,²⁰⁹ after a careful examination of the Old Persian Inscription on the Behistan rock,²¹⁰ the name of this angel occurs in the very short list of Zoroastrian divinities known to the Achaemenian kings. The twenty-sixth day of the month is sacred to her.²¹¹	208. KZ. 35.45; ZDMG. 54.364, n. 1. 209. Persia Past and Present, p. 203-205, New York, 1906. 210. Bh. 4.64. 211. Y16.6; Sr. 1.26; 2.26.
ERETHE AND RASANSTAT
Minor divinities of truth. By the names of Erethe and Rasantat are designated two minor female angels presiding over truth. Nothing is known about them excepting that they are invoked by name along with Chisti and Ashi Vanghuhi.²¹² They are given the epithet 'good.' Erethe is once called courageous.²¹³	212. Y1.14; 3.16; 4.19; Vsp. 9.4; Sr. 1.25. 213. Vsp. 9.4.
[194] VERETHRAGHNA
The angel of victory. Verethraghna belongs to the Indo-Iranian divinities. He is one of the most popular divinities of the Iranian cult. Indra's most distinctive epithet in the Rig Veda is Vrtrahan, 'the slayer of Vrtra.' Its Avestan corresponding word is Verethraghna which, however, is not used as an epithet of some angel, but is the name of a powerful angel. Verethraghna impersonates victory and he has preserved this trait throughout the various epochs of Iranian religious thought. The Yasht bearing his name celebrates his exploits. As the genius of victory, and created by Ahura Mazda, Verethraghna is the best armed of the spiritual angels.²¹⁴ He is the most courageous in courage, the most victorious in victory, the most glorious in glory, the most abounding in favours, the best giver of welfare, and the most healing in health-giving.²¹⁵ He is the giver of manliness, inflicting death, maker of a new world, resolute, and self-willed.²¹⁶	214. Yt14.1,6,etc. 215. Yt14.3, 7, etc. 216. Yt14.28, 30, 32.
King Vishtaspa is blessed by Zarathushtra that he may be a conqueror of his enemies like Verethraghna.²¹⁷ The twentieth day of the month is dedicated to him.²¹⁸ His constant associates are Ama, 'Courage,' and Vanainti Uparatat, 'Dominating Excellence.'	217. AZ. 7. 218. Y16.5; Sr. 1.20; 2.20.
The patron angel of the Iranian countries. Verethraghna is one of the national divinities of the Aryans. If the nation sacrificed unto Verethraghna with libations, and the sacred twigs, and consecrated cooked repast of cattle, either white or of some other colour, no hostile hordes, no plague, nor evil of any kind would enter the Aryan lands.²¹⁹ The sacrifice is to be offered through righteousness, and none but the righteous should partake of the holy food dedicated to Verethraghna. Untold calamity would befall the Aryan countries if the wicked should have a share in the sacred feast. In such an event plagues and foes would devastate the country and the Aryans would be smitten by their fifties and their hundreds, by their hundreds and their thousands, by their thousands and their tens of thousands, by their tens of thousands and their myriads of myriads.²²⁰	219. Yt14. 48-50. 220. Yt14.51-53.
[195] Verethraghna's work. The armies that meet on the battlefield invoke Verethraghna for victory. He favours that army which first seeks his help.. The army that secures his aid is sure to conquer and not to be conquered, it smites and is not smitten.²²¹ He breaks asunder the columns of the enemy, wounds them, shakes them, and cuts them to pieces.²²² He brings illness and death into the army that has lied unto Mithra, binds their hands and feet, and deprives them of their eyesight and hearing.²²³ He destroys the malice of the malicious demons and men, sorcerers and fairies, the willfully blind, and the willfully deaf. ²²⁴ Zarathushtra sacrificed unto Verethraghna, imploring from him victory in thought, victory in word, victory in deed, victory in addressing. and victory in replying.²²⁵ Verethraghna imparts to the prophet the excellence of uprightness, the strength of the arms, the health of the body, the strength of the body, and the powerful vision of the eyes.²²⁶	221. Yt14.43, 44. 222. Yt14.62. 223. Yt14.47,63. 224. Yt14.4. 225. Yt14.28, 30, 32. 226. Yt14.29,31,33.
His metamorphoses. Verethraghna, along with Dahma Afriti and Damoish Upamana, imports a peculiar aspect into the Iranian pantheon, that of assuming various shapes and manifesting his individuality in many forms. As the lord of victory he is ever ready to help those who invoke him, and comes down to his votary under different guises. Ten of such forms of Verethraghna are mentioned, when he appeared to Zarathushtra. The divinity successively assumes the form of the wind, a bull, a horse, a camel, a boar, a youth, a raven, a ram, a he-goat, and finally of a man.²²⁷ He escorts Mithra in the shape of a boar to smite those that have lied unto the guardian of truth.²²⁸	227. Yt14.2,7,9,11,15,17,19,23,25,27. 228. Yt10.70.
RAMAN
He causes the joy of life. Another instance of a hymn consecrated in name to one Yazata, but wholly devoted to the praise and glorification of another, is furnished by Ram Yasht (15). Raman is merely invoked by name along with Vayu at the beginning [196] and the end of the Yasht. Vayu, the genius of wind, is the co-labourer of Raman, and the Yasht treats of his achievements. Raman Khvastra is the genius of the joy of life. The joy that he imparts is not the joy of the spirit, and does not convey any spiritual significance. It is the joy or pleasure pertaining to this life. Raman's joy makes man full of zest for life. Good abodes and good pastures that bring comfort and happiness in the present life are Raman's gifts. Savouriness of food is from him. Rich harvest, fertile fields, wide pasture, abundant fodder, and thick foliage, are the boons of Raman and his associate divinities, like Mithra and Vayu.²²⁹ In fact it is Mithra and Tishtrya who impart this joy to the abodes of the Aryan nations.²³⁰ The waters of Ardvi Sura Anahita are likewise invoked to grant joyful dwellings for the worshippers of Mazda.²³¹ Zarathushtra wishes King Vishtaspa the joy of Raman.²³² We have already seen that Zarathushtra's joyful outlook on life pervades the Younger Avesta. Gaiety of spirit and cheerfulness of nature characterize the people of the period.	229. Y1.3; 2.3; 22.23; 25.4; Vsp. 1.7; 2.9; Yt10.146. Yt15; Sr. 1.21; 2.21; Vd. 3.1; G. 1.7. 230. Yt8.2; 10.4. 231. Y68.14. 232. Yt23.7; 24.6.
RATA
Physical and mental inequality leads to economic inequality. Providence does not distribute the physical and mental gifts to man on the basis of equality. Some are born with agile, robust, and healthy bodies, whereas others are burdened with sluggish, weak, and sickly bodies. Mankind has contributed considerably by its vice of ages to the deformity of body and derangement of mind. Men and women are born with unequal physical and mental strength. The strong and strenuous, cunning and resourceful, vigorous and adventurous mercilessly overthrow the weak and slow, simple and dull, timid and indolent in the fierce scramble for the good things of life. The unequal distribution by nature of the gifts of body and brain, aided by selfishness and greed on the part of man bring about economic inequality. The disparity of poverty and wealth has appeared on the face of the earth ever since society took to settled life and, with the [197] division of labour, embarked upon earning means of livelihood by different kinds of work. The strong have exploited the labour of the weak and forced them to slave like beasts of burden with their eyes raining tears of sorrow. The fear of starvation has hovered over millions of huts like vultures. The poor have generally lived in squalor and sickness and died like flies. Countless persons have not experienced a full and satisfied stomach from birth to death. Kindly mothers have eaten only half the bread that their children may have the other half. Multitudes of children have lived with wasted cheeks, sunken eyes, and emaciated bodies among the dregs of life. Men and women have sweated and starved and grown gray before their time. Physical sufferings have rendered many the shadows of themselves, made them live two years in one and age fast. Many have found it hard to equate the income and expenses, and earned a precarious living. The people whose tragedy it has been to be poor have always outnumbered the rich in the world.
When life has thus denied many the barest necessities of life, it has loaded others with abundance. Men of industry and enterprise have amassed riches, others have inherited wealth, still others have filled their coffers by foul means. Some have been parasites fattening upon the sweated toil of the tillers of the soil and have wrung from them the fruits of their labour. They have revelled in superfluous riches. They have lived in spacious halls with frescoed walls, and velvet hangings looped with golden tassels. They had a retinue of servants at their beck and call and lounged away their time upon luxurious divans. They had sumptuous tables laden with a dozen courses and sparkling wines and fed themselves to early death. Others gave themselves up to gaiety and licentiousness. Many have indulged in ostentatious and extravagant luxury when the vast numbers of the poor have clothed themselves in rags and their children have suffered from malnutrition. The insolence and hauteur, the cold behaviour and thinly concealed slights have stung the helpless poor to the quick.
The poor took the counsels of contentment given by the wise to heart and resigned themselves to the inscrutable will of God. Moreover, there have always been noble souls everywhere who have come forward to father society's orphans and destitutes. They have acted on the principle that wealth was not given them [198] for their selfish use, and that the rich were the stewards of their wealth given them by God for the amelioration of the condition of the poor. When some have not given anything from their abundance, many have always given something, and the few have given up their all.
Charity personified. The female genius of charity, grace, or alms-giving is Rata, the companion of Spenta Armaiti, with whom she is conjointly invoked in the hymns of praise.²³³ Through her Ahura Mazda gives reward,²³⁴ for he has spoken of her with express sanction to Zarathushtra, and in obedience the prophet has introduced her to humanity.²³⁵ The faithful pray that they may win Ahura Mazda's favours through Rata.²³⁶ She nourishes the poor.²³⁷ Sraosha is the best protector of the poor.²³⁸ He shelters poor men and women in his mansion.²³⁹ Haoma exalts the mind of the poor.^239a With uplifted hands do the ill-treated poor call Mithra for help.²⁴⁰ The faithful fervently pray that the spirit of charity of the religious devotee²⁴¹ may drive away the demon of stinginess from the house. If one of the faith approaches another seeking goods, or a wife, or knowledge, the man of means should help him with goods, he should arrange for the marriage of this poor coreligionist, he should pay for his instruction in religious matters.²⁴² It is in every man's power to practise charity, either in thoughts, or in words, or in deeds.	233. Sr. 1.5; 2.5. 234. Y40.1. 235. Y65.9. 236. Y40.4. 237. VYt36 238. Yt11.3. 239. Y57.10. 239a. Y10.13. 240. Yt10.84. 241. Y60.5. 242. Vd4.44.
AKHSHTI
The angel of peace. This female divinity is peace personified, but even though perfectly clearly recognizable as such, she is very obscurely outlined as to traits. She is invoked in company with Vohu Manah, or Good Mind,²⁴³ for nothing can break the inner peace in which the spirit of a man of good thoughts reposes. Akhshti is usually called victorious.²⁴⁴	243. Yt2.1; Sr.l.2; 2.2. 244. Vsp. 7.1; Yt2.1, 6; 11,15; 15.1; Sr. 1.2; 2.2.
The term Akhshti occurs also as a common noun. This peace as well as war lies in the power of Mithra to bring upon the [199] country.²⁴⁵ The rulers invoke Chisti to procure peace for their countries,²⁴⁶ and the faithful pray that peace and concord may drive out discord and strife from their abodes.²⁴⁷	245. Yt10.29. 246. Yt16.19. 247. Y60.5.
MANTHRA SPENTA
The spirit of the spells. The Gathas spoke of the mânthra, the sacred formula, or inspired utterance of great spiritual potency, but did not personify it. The Avestan texts do so, however, under the name Manthra Spenta, or Holy Formula. The manthras generally indicate the spells of magical charms in the Younger Avesta. Manthra Spenta, the embodiment of the holy spell, is invoked along with Daena, the genius of religion, and Vohu Manah's wisdom.²⁴⁸ As an angel presiding over the formulas of the faith he wards off evil, exorcises those possessed of the demons, and heals the sick; he is consequently invoked to heal the ninety-nine thousand nine hundred and ninety-nine diseases created by Angra Mainyu.²⁴⁹ He is efficacious and the most glorious one,²⁵⁰ and like every other angel, Manthra Spenta has his Fravashi.²⁵¹ The twenty-ninth day of the month is sacred to him.²⁵²	248. Sr. 1.29; 2.29. 249. Vd. 22.2, 6. 250. Y1.13; 2.13; 25.6; Vsp. 21.2; Vd. 22.2, 6. 251. Yt13. 86. 252. Y16.6.
The potency of the spells. The collocation manthra spenta occurs more frequently in its ordinary meaning than as the name of the angel presiding over the holy spells. The term mânthra without its appellative spenta is also freely used to designate the sacred texts.

M.N. Dhalla: History of Zoroastrianism (1938), part 3.

CHAPTER XVIII

THE IDEA OF GOD IN THE MILLENNIUM

CHAPTER XIX

AHURA MAZDA

CHAPTER XX

SPENTA MAINYU

CHAPTER XXI

AMESHA SPENTAS

VOHU MANAH

ASHA VAHISHTA

KHSHATHRA VAIRYA

SPENTA ARMAlTI

HAURVATAT AND AMERETAT

CHAPTER XXII

YAZATAS

CELESTIAL YAZATAS

TERRESTRIAL YAZATAS

DAENA

CHISTI

SRAOSHA

MITHRA

RASHNU

ARSHTAT

ERETHE AND RASANSTAT

VERETHRAGHNA

RAMAN

RATA

AKHSHTI

MANTHRA SPENTA